Software Vault: The Sapphire Collection/Software Vault (Sapphire Collection) (Digital Impact).ISO/cdr14/ifblind.zip/IFBLIND.TXT

Text File | 1994-10-03 | 196KB | 3,481 lines

                       IF BLINDNESS COMES


                       Large Type Edition
                        Kenneth Jernigan
                             Editor


                          published by
                NATIONAL FEDERATION OF THE BLIND
Copyright 1994 by the National Federation of the Blind
All Rights Reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
Table of Contents
     Questions and Answers  p.1
     Who Is Blind?  p.73
     Braille■What is It? What Does It Mean to the Blind?  p.83
     Independent Travel  p.93
     Cooking Techniques  p.105
     Sewing Techniques  p.137
     Marking Dials and Tactile Labeling  p.143
     Shopping Ideas  p.149
     Older Blind and Visually Impaired Persons  p.153
     Common Eye Conditions and Causes of Blindness in the United
States  p.173
     Who are the Blind Who Lead the Blind  p.213This Book is for You

     If you are blind or have a family member or friend who is
blind, this book is for you. If you are losing your sight or know
someone who is, this book is for you. If you are a teacher, a
social worker, a counselor, a librarian, or a minister, this book
is for you.
     It is meant to provide information about where to get things
and how to learn new techniques. Even more important, it is meant
to instill confidence and allay fear.
     Contrary to popular belief, the real problem of blindness is
not the loss of eyesight but the misunderstanding and
misconceptions which exist. It is no longer theory but fact that
with reasonable training and opportunity the average blind person
can compete on terms of equality with the average sighted person
similarly situated. This book is a manual and a ■how to■ guide■not
only for the blind but also for those losing sight and for the
members of their families. It is meant for senior citizens, for
young adults, and for those in between. It is also meant for
parents of blind children and for professionals in the field.
     It proclaims that loss of sight need not be a tragedy but that
it can be■and probably will unless correct information is
available. The simple statement that it is respectable to be blind
is our thesis, and that thesis (though undramatic) is
revolutionary. It points the way to new hope and unexpected
opportunity for those who are blind or are losing their sight. So
read on, and contact us if you need our help.Why Large Type?

     The type size used in this book is 14 Point for two important
reasons: One, because typesetting of 14 Point or larger complies
with federal standards for the printing of materials for visually
impaired readers, and we wanted to show you what type size is
helpful for people with limited sight.
     The second reason is that many of our friends and supporters
have asked us to print our paperback books in 14■point type so they
too can easily read them. Many people with limited sight do not use
Braille. We hope that by printing this book in a larger type than
customary, many more people will be able to benefit from it.Contact Us!

     Throughout this book we invite you to contact us for
information. To do so write to:
                National Federation of the Blind
                       1800 Johnson Street
                    Baltimore, Maryland 21230What is the National Federation of the Blind?

     The National Federation of the Blind is the largest
organization of the blind in America. Interested sighted persons
also join. Founded in 1940, the Federation has grown to include
more than fifty thousand of the nation's blind.
     The Federation is organized in every state and has local
chapters in almost every community of any size in the nation. Where
there is no local chapter there are members-at-large. Each year the
National Convention of the Federation is attended by approximately
2,500 blind persons■the largest gathering of blind people in the
history of the world and growing each year.
     The Federation is a vehicle for joint action by the blind and
parents of blind children. In other words, the National Federation
of the Blind is the voice of the blind. It is the blind speaking
for themselves.

How do you help people who are becoming blind?

     The newly blinded person faces a difficult adjustment. One of
the best medicines is to meet other blind people and learn of their
jobs and the techniques they use in doing things without sight.
Membership in the National Federation of the Blind provides this
common meeting ground and, even more important, a sense of
participation and restoration of confidence. Members of the NFB
contact newly blinded persons to help them with problems of
adjustment and orientation.
     Information is also given concerning available services from
governmental and private agencies, as well as facts about laws and
regulations concerning the blind.

What is the National Center for the Blind?

     The National Center for the Blind (NCB), located at 1800
Johnson Street, Baltimore, Maryland, was established in 1978 and
has come to be the focal point of a great deal of the work being
done to assist blind people throughout the country and the world.
As can be seen from the picture on the front of this book, the
Center is housed in a renovated, turn-of-the-century manufacturing
facility, giving it ample space for handling the many activities
relating to blindness which occur there. The headquarters of the
National Federation of the Blind is located at the National Center
for the Blind, as is the International Braille and Technology
Center for the Blind and Job Opportunities for the Blind.  Other
organizations located at the NCB include the American Action Fund
for Blind Children and Adults and the National Organization of
Parents of Blind Children. It is convenient and efficient to have
major programs assisting the blind located in the same physical
facility. The concept is much the same as is found in many medical
centers, where medical specialists, medical testing laboratories,
and pharmacies are housed together in one facility for the mutual
benefit of all concerned.

What is the American Action Fund for Blind Children and Adults?

     The American Action Fund for Blind Children and Adults is a
service agency which specializes in providing help to blind people
which is not readily available to them from government programs or
other existing service systems.  The services of the American
Action Fund for Blind Children and Adults are provided free and are
available especially to blind children, the elderly blind, and the
deaf-blind. The Action Fund maintains a free lending library of
Braille and Twin Vision books for blind children. It publishes and
distributes to deaf-blind persons a free, weekly newspaper in
Braille. The Action Fund also distributes free Braille calendars to
blind and deaf-blind people throughout the country, gives
scholarships and other needed assistance, and provides information
to senior citizens to help them deal with vision loss in their
later years.

What is the International Braille and Technology Center for the
Blind (IBTC)?

     The International Braille and Technology Center for the Blind
was opened on November 16, 1990, the fiftieth birthday of the
National Federation of the Blind.  The IBTC is the only facility of
its kind in the world. It houses at least one each of every type of
Braille-producing, computer-driven Braille printer currently on the
market, as well as computers with refreshable Braille displays,
raised-line drawing equipment of various sorts, optical character
recognition equipment used to transform printed characters into
electronically produced speech or Braille, and a growing array of
voice output computer screen reading systems.
     The International Braille and Technology Center for the Blind
provides a central location where individuals■blind or sighted,
employers or potential employees■can come to experience first hand
the various types of Braille and speech synthesis equipment
available. Blind job seekers, blind employees, potential and actual
employers of blind individuals, and the general public are welcome
to come to the IBTC to tour, observe, and test the equipment.
     The capabilities■advantages as well as disadvantages■of each
device can be evaluated in a setting that is completely independent
of manufacturers and salespeople.
     The Center can be used as a tool to enable blind job seekers
to become trained in the technology necessary to obtain gainful
employment or to enable blind employees to sample and select
equipment which would enable them to compete and advance in their
current jobs. The Technology Center also provides an opportunity
for employers to view and test the various types of equipment
available.

What are the mail campaigns of the National Federation of the
Blind, and why are they conducted?

     The mail campaigns of the National Federation of the Blind
help finance the organization, but their basic purpose is to inform
the general public about blindness and to let those who need our
services know how to find us. Through our mailings the name,
address, and service messages of the National Federation of the
Blind appear on millions of objects: calendars, pencils, packages
of seeds, magnifying glasses, and especially our Kernel Books. We
are striving for the day when the name, address, and service
messages of the National Federation of the Blind will be on enough
items in the home of every American that anybody who needs our help
will know how to reach us and that correct information about
blindness will have completely replaced outworn notions. You can
help us achieve this goal by carefully reading all of our material
that reaches you and by passing it on to others. We answer
thousands of inquiries each year and to the extent of our resources
will respond to every question we get. Much of our public education
program is carried out through our mail campaigns.

What are the Kernel Books?

     Each Kernel Book is a paperback volume of true stories told by
blind persons about how they have dealt with problems and achieved
goals. One or two new Kernel Books are issued each year as part of
the ongoing series. They are readable and interesting, giving the
general public an opportunity to know what blindness is really like
and how the people who live it on a daily basis feel. The message
of the Kernel Books is that it is respectable to be blind, that
(with opportunity and appropriate training) blind people can have
as much fun and lead as full lives as others, and that the blind
are capable of full participation in society.
     Let us know if you would like to have any of the Kernel Books.
We would be happy to send them without charge. Some of the books in
the series are: What Color Is the Sun, The Freedom Bell, As the
Twig Is Bent, Making Hay, and The Journey.

Why are your contribution envelopes addressed in care of ADM
Security Services in Baltimore, Maryland?

     Mail containing donations to us addressed to ADM Security
Services is opened and processed for us by an accounting service
under very tightly supervised conditions. Deposits are then made
directly into our bank account. We believe that this system offers
the best possible security for your gifts since many of the
donations we receive come in small amounts and in cash.

Do you comply with the standards of the Better Business Bureau?

     Yes. We submit detailed financial and program information to
the Philanthropic Advisory Service of the National Council of
Better Business Bureaus on an annual basis. We have been
continuously listed as complying with all standards for charitable
solicitations in the Better Business Bureau's publication  Give But
Give Wisely for many years. Local Better Business Bureaus can
obtain any information they wish from their national office. For
this reason we do not go to the expense of filling out the
individual forms of the hundreds of local Better Business Bureau
offices throughout the country.

How is the National Federation of the Blind funded?

     The National Federation of the Blind is funded primarily in
two ways. Our blind members themselves (even though many are
unemployed and exist on very small incomes) give what they can to
support their own organization. Many give on a regular monthly
basis at substantial personal sacrifice. Although these
contributions from blind people come to a considerable amount, we
could not begin to do the work we do without the generous support
of the thousands who contribute through our mail campaigns■again,
frequently at personal sacrifice. In short, our funding comes
largely from individuals, who believe in what we are doing and are
willing to help us do it.

How much do you spend on fundraising expenses?

     The actual amount varies some from year to year, but over the
last several years our fundraising costs as a percentage of public
support have not exceeded ten percent.

Are contributions to the National Federation of the Blind
tax■deductible?

     Yes. The National Federation of the Blind holds 50l(c)(3)
tax■exempt status with the Internal Revenue Service.

Can I make a gift to the National Federation of the Blind in my
will?

     You certainly can, and we hope you do! As a matter of fact
many individuals who have come to know us through our mail
campaigns have done so. All you have to do is to place the
following language in your will:
     "I give, devise, and bequeath unto National Federation of the
Blind, 1800 Johnson Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21230, a District
of Columbia nonprofit corporation, the sum of $_________ (or "_____
percent of my net estate" or "The following stocks and bonds:
______") to be used for its worthy purposes on behalf of blind
persons."
     If you care to let us know that you have made a gift to us in
your will, it is helpful.

What can volunteers do to help the blind?

     If you would like to provide direct volunteer assistance to
blind individuals, please contact us for information about locating
blind people in your area. People who can provide transportation,
help with shopping, or do reading are especially needed.
     It is also important to help in the effort to change public
attitudes about blindness and make information available. By
reading the materials we distribute in our mail campaigns you
inform yourself and can share what you learn with others.
     Many blind people do not know what services exist to help
them. You can make this information available by distributing our
materials to schools, church groups, libraries, nursing homes,
senior citizens' centers, retirement villages, doctors' offices,
low vision clinics, and other community organizations.
     These are just a few ideas for very much needed volunteer
assistance. However, you may have skills or talents that you want
to use in a particular way. If another project is better suited to
your talents and the time you have available, please let us know.

Can you give me help relating to my specific eye problem?

     We are not medical experts. We can help you with problems you
have because you cannot see well, and we can provide general
information about eye diseases and causes of blindness. For
specific medical problems relating to your eyes, you should see an
eye doctor or other medical professional.

Do you conduct medical research relating to eye diseases? If so, do
you use animals in your research?

     The answer to both questions is no. The last section in this
book gives information about common eye conditions and causes of
blindness in the United States. If you need more specific
information we suggest that you contact a medical facility
specializing in eye diseases. One such facility with an outstanding
reputation is the Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins Hospital, 600
North Wolfe Street, Room B-20, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, (410)
955-9653.

What are your ■State Resource Lists?■

     We have prepared a fact sheet giving specific information
(including addresses and telephone numbers) for services available
in each state. A local contact person for the National Federation
of the Blind is always given. We hope you will get in touch with
our local leaders for further help.

What financial help can a blind person receive?

     There are two main sources of cash financial assistance for
blind people. They are regular Social Security benefits, also
called OASDI payments, and Supplemental Security Income (SSI). Both
programs are administered by the federal government through its
system of local Social Security offices. To be eligible for regular
Social Security benefits a blind individual has to have had some
employment. To be eligible for SSI payments an individual does not
need ever to have had any employment but must have limited income
and savings. The rules which apply to blind people are often
different from the rules for sighted people. The amount of the
monthly cash payment is determined individually, and annual
increases occur each January. You may qualify for one or both of
these programs. In any case the monthly amount will not be lower
than approximately $450 for an individual or $670 for a couple. To
apply for either program contact your local Social Security office.
     We also encourage you to contact us at the National Federation
of the Blind if you have any problem understanding the regulations
relating to blindness, feel you have been unjustly denied benefits,
or have other problems about which we may be able to provide
information and guidance.

Are blind people eligible for medical assistance?

     Yes. A blind person who is under age 65 and who receives
Social Security disability benefits is covered under Medicare after
a two■year waiting period. There is no waiting period for Medicare
benefits after age 65. A blind person who receives Supplemental
Security Income payments is eligible for state administered
Medicaid assistance without any waiting period. If an individual
receives only a very small Social Security disability payment, he
or she may also receive Supplemental Security Income payments. In
this case the individual would also be eligible for Medicaid
benefits immediately. We can provide further information upon
request.

What library services are available to people who are blind or who
have poor eyesight?

     Every state has free library reading materials for blind
individuals provided through the National Library Service for the
Blind and Physically Handicapped of the Library of Congress. Books
and magazines are available on loan and free of charge in Braille
and on cassette and records (called talking books). Special
cassette machines and record players for use in listening to
recorded reading matter are also loaned without cost to blind and
visually impaired library users. For details about where and how to
apply for services you may contact us or your local public library
or call the toll-free library service telephone number: (800)
424-9100.

Who is eligible to get books and magazines through the program of
the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically
Handicapped of the Library of Congress?

     If you cannot read ordinary print because of poor eyesight or
because of a physical handicap such as being unable to turn a page,
you are eligible to get Braille or recorded books through this
service. It is not necessary for you to be totally blind or
classified as legally blind. However, it is necessary for someone
recognized by the library system as competent to do so to certify
that you are eligible for the service. An officer or local leader
of the National Federation of the Blind can help you with
certification for library services.

Where can I get books, magazines, or newspapers in large print?

     A number of libraries for the blind distribute large print
books. Those libraries which do not handle large print directly
usually can refer you to local sources of large print material.
Most regular public libraries have a small collection of large
print books. They can order other titles for you by borrowing them
from other public libraries.
     The New York Times publishes a large print weekly summary of
its columns and features. You can order it by contacting the New
York Times directly at P. O. Box 5792, New York, New York
10087-5792, telephone [phone]. Reader's Digest Large Type
Edition is available by contacting P. O. Box 241, Mount Morris,
Illinois 61054, telephone [phone]. There is also a weekly
large type news magazine entitled The World At Large. Contact The
World At Large, P.O. Box 190330, Brooklyn, New York 11219,
telephone [phone].
     If you want to buy books, check with your local bookstore.
Most of the bookstores carry a few large print titles. They also
have catalogs from publishers and can order books especially for
you. You may also want to request the free catalog available from
The Large Print Book Club, G. K. Hall & Company, 70 Lincoln Street,
Boston, Massachusetts 02111.
     For a comprehensive list of materials which are available in
large print, contact the National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped of the Library of Congress for their
reference circular entitled ■Reading Materials in Large Print.■
This circular is available free of charge from the National Library
Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, Library of
Congress; 1291 Taylor Street, N.W.; Washington, D.C. 20542;
telephone [phone] or [phone].

Where can I get a Bible in Braille, large print, or in recorded
form?

     There are many sources. Here are some of them:
          American Bible Society
          1865 Broadway
          New York, New York  10023
          Phone: [phone]

          Christian Fellowship for the Blind International, Inc.
          Post Office Box 26
          South Pasadena, California  91030
          Phone: [phone]
     (These Bibles are free of charge to blind and visually
impaired persons.)

          National Library Service for the Blind and Physically
          Handicapped of the Library of Congress
          1291 Taylor Street, N.W.
          Washington, D.C.  20542
          Phone: [phone]
     (Will provide you with information on Bibles and other
religious material available in Braille, large print, or on
cassette.)

Can books for the blind and other specialized items for the blind
be mailed without paying postage?

     Recorded, Braille, and large print reading matter (including
library books and magazines) may be mailed to and from blind
persons free of charge if the words "Free Matter for the Blind" are
written or stamped on the envelope or package. Braille watches,
white canes, and other special appliances for the blind are
included in this privilege. We will be happy to answer questions
about the Free Reading Matter mail privilege.

Where can I get a good magnifier?

     You may want to contact a low-vision center in your own
community. When you visit them, you can try magnifiers until you
find the one that works best for you. Donegan Optical Company,
Inc., 15549 West 108th Street, Post Office Box 14308, Lenexa,
Kansas 66215, [phone] manufactures a large selection of
magnifying equipment. Donegan does not sell directly to individuals
but will be glad to refer you to a distributor in your area.

Can an older person who is losing sight continue to live
independently?

     Yes, usually. There is no reason why an older person who is
losing sight cannot learn the techniques to live
independently■managing a home, doing cooking, and handling the
activities of daily living. It is a matter of self-confidence and
having some help in acquiring skills. Many of the things we think
require sight really don't. They can be done visually, but they can
usually be done in other ways as well.
     In every state there are governmental agencies that have
responsibility for assisting older persons who are losing eyesight
in acquiring needed skills, but the quality of the services varies
widely. Some state programs are excellent, and others are virtually
useless. We can provide a resource list and the names of contacts.

Are there special nursing or retirement homes for elderly blind
people?

     Almost none. In the early part of this century, homes for the
blind were quite common, but very few of them are left. Any good
nursing home or retirement center can accommodate blind people
adequately. For more details on this issue read the section ■Older
Blind and Visually Impaired Persons■ in this book.

What are some common devices and pieces of equipment that people
with limited eyesight find helpful?

     Some useful items are: needle threaders and self-threading
needles; talking alarm clocks and watches; Braille alarm clocks and
watches; white canes; large print and Braille playing cards and
other games; talking calculators; talking clinical thermometers;
print writing aids such as signature guides; check writing guides
and grooved writing boards; and Braille writing equipment and
supplies. These items, as well as a great many more, can be
obtained from the National Federation of the Blind.

Can I continue to play cards now that I am losing my sight?

     Yes. There are decks of cards with greatly enlarged numbers.
If you can't see well enough to use these, or even if you can, it
will be quite easy to learn enough Braille to read the cards by
touch. Only a few symbols have to be memorized, and with a little
practice you should find it easy and fun. A deck of Braille cards
is simply an ordinary deck of cards with Braille markings added.
You will be able to play cards with the same people you have always
played with. You can get cards by contacting us.

Are there other games that have been adapted for people who are
blind or have limited sight?

     Yes. Checkers, chess, scrabble, and others. Regular dominoes
can ordinarily be played by touch instead of sight by most persons.

How does a blind person identify money?

     Coins can be identified by touch. There are only two times
when you need to identify bills■when you are receiving them, and
when you are spending them. When you are getting money changed or
otherwise receiving bills, there is ordinarily no trouble in
getting somebody to tell you what they are. Fold them differently,
or put them in different pockets. If you have done this, there will
be no problem in knowing what bills you are spending. Some blind
persons keep one■ dollar bills loose in a pocket and fold fives,
tens, twenties, etc. differently and place them in a wallet. The
important thing to keep in mind is that handling money is no real
problem.
     For blind persons who operate businesses and receive large
amounts of cash on a regular basis from strangers, there is a
talking paper money identifier. However, this device costs several
hundred dollars and is not regarded as necessary by most blind or
visually impaired persons in their daily lives.

How can I read the markings on stoves and other appliances?

     There are many ways to do it. Some blind persons cut notches
that they can feel. Some use tape. Some use a glob of glue or other
plastic substance. We make available a plastic marking substance
called Hi-Marks. It doesn't matter how you do it. The important
thing is to know that you can, and then use ingenuity.

What measuring devices do blind people use?

     Braille rulers and adapted tape measures are used for ordinary
measuring. When greater precision is required, a tool called a
Rotomatic permits measurements to be made to an accuracy greater
than one sixty-fourth of an inch. If even more precision is needed,
a Braille micrometer can be used to obtain measurements accurate to
one■thousandth of an inch.

Where can blind people get specialized training?

     There are a number of regional training centers affiliated
with the National Federation of the Blind which provide excellent
help. There are also some state government-operated centers and
private centers. Ask for our state resource list to obtain
information about our regional training center serving your state
and about your state government services.

Are there government programs to help the blind in my state?

     The government of every state operates a program of training
and job placement for blind and visually impaired persons. These
programs are largely funded under the federal rehabilitation act.
They are administered and staffed by the state but governed by
federal regulations and guidelines.
     These rehabilitation programs vary greatly in quality from
state to state. Generally the better ones are those administered by
separate agencies for the blind as opposed to those that try to
lump the blind in with all other disability groups. Even the best
of the government programs fall far short of being able to provide
all of the assistance that is needed.
     Through these programs blind persons who want to find or
prepare for employment may be able to get financial assistance to
attend college or vocational training courses and may be able to
get help in going into business or finding a job.

What jobs can blind people do?

     Contrary to general belief, there really are very few jobs
which blindness itself rules out. There are blind persons working
as electricians, auto mechanics, attorneys, carpenters,
dishwashers, secretaries, office and corporate managers, teachers
and professors, real estate agents, plumbers, computer and
technology specialists, actors, and broadcasters and producers, and
in thousands of other jobs.
     Even though this is true, most (about 70%) of blind persons of
employable age are either unemployed or severely underemployed.
This is so for two main reasons. First, most blind people have not
received the kind of training in specialized skills (especially
Braille and mobility) which is necessary for a blind person to be
a competent employee. Second, and equally important, blind people
themselves, employers, and members of the general public do not
believe that a blind employee can do work as productively as a
sighted person can. The employment situation for blind people will
only improve to the extent that good training is received and
beliefs and attitudes are changed. This, of course, is what the
National Federation of the Blind is working to accomplish.

Can blind people use computers?

     Yes. Blind people use computers that have been adapted so that
the material shown on the screen can be converted to speech. Such
computers are referred to as "talking computers." Material which
can be printed from a computer in inkprint can also be obtained
from the computer in Braille format.

     Can I make a computer I already have into a "talking
computer?"

     Yes. You will need two things. The first is a speech
synthesizer. This is the hardware or device that actually produces
the sounds you hear. The second is software called a screen review
program or "screen reader" program. This is software that runs on
a computer that gives a blind person the tools to use off-the-shelf
computer programs. It allows you to get the system to repeat the
information on the screen, read by character, line, sentence,
paragraph, screen, page, etc. It also is how you control the
speech, speed, tone, pitch, volume, and silence. Without such
software a computer would be impossible to use.
     Speech synthesizers come in both internal and external models.
The internal kind is an "expansion card" that goes inside of your
computer. The external type is a box that hooks to a serial or
parallel output port on your computer. The internal variety is
generally more responsive and less expensive but takes up an
expansion slot in your computer and is more difficult to move and
install. The external variety is generally more expensive but is
easy to move from computer to computer.
     Screen review software costs from $75 to $750. Speech
synthesizers cost from $100 to $1500. In general, the more
expensive models of the synthesizers have more human-like speech.
There are over a dozen each of programs and synthesizers on the
market.
     You are welcome to visit the International Braille and
Technology Center for the Blind to try out for yourself the various
equipment which exists.

Do you have a list of specialized computer-related equipment for
the blind?

     Yes. Ask for our "Computer Resource List."  It lists most such
equipment on the market today and gives a brief description; cost;
and the name, address, and telephone number of the distributor. The
list is free and is available in large print.

What is Job Opportunities for the Blind?

     Job Opportunities for the Blind (JOB) is a joint project of
the U.S. Department of Labor in partnership with the National
Federation of the Blind. JOB offers free services to U.S. residents
who are blind and looking for work in the United States. Services
include a nationwide reference and job referral service, a job
hunter's magazine on cassette (the JOB Recorded Bulletin), recorded
job information literature, print materials for employer education,
local and national career-planning seminars, consultation on low
vision aids and appliances, and introductions to blind peers
employed in the jobs of interest to the job seeker. For a sample
JOB packet, call [phone].
     JOB offers additional free services and assistance to high
schools with programs on transition to the world of work, to
counselors of legally blind clients, and to other persons assisting
a blind applicant. JOB's volunteers are available in every state.
     JOB offers employers free, nationwide job listings to locate
competent workers who are blind, free consultation on
cost-effective solutions for reasonable accommodation needs, and
free educational seminars on hiring blind employees.
     Most employers do not want to be unfair to blind applicants or
blind employees. Yet, many are over and over again without knowing
it. Generally, employers do not treat the blind unfairly from a
malicious will to cause trouble or keep blind persons down and out.
They do it because they believe blindness is a tragic condition for
anyone. They think blindness takes away most of a person's ability
to do most of the things that are needed for most jobs.
     Although it is not true, employers and others often think
blindness causes general incompetence. The average sighted person
with little experience regarding blindness tends to think: ■If I
were blind, I would not be able to drive a car or read books,
magazines or newspapers. If I were blind, I would be afraid to walk
around, especially in areas with which I was not familiar. If I
were blind, I would not be able to recognize people and things
visually. [And this reasoning continues] If I were blind, I would
not be able to function the way I do. If I could not do my job the
way I do without sight, then a blind person could not do it.■ With
a little imagination one can apply this type of reasoning to almost
any job■probably every job that exists. If this reasoning were
sound, then blind people could not be competitive and should not
try to compete for jobs. BUT IT IS NOT SOUND. Blind people can
compete in a wide variety of jobs in virtually every type of
business.
     The experience of blind persons is that, with proper training
and opportunity, the average blind person can do the average job in
the average place of business■and do it as well as his or her
sighted colleagues. Techniques and instruments have been developed
that make it possible for blind individuals to do most activities
for which sight is ordinarily considered necessary. This is not a
matter of theory or speculation. The evidence is abundant and
continues to accumulate at a rapid rate.
     Since World War II, employment opportunities for the blind and
other opportunities for the blind have been improving. This change
has been slow and gradual. For example, in the early 1950's the few
blind persons who were even permitted to take and pass examinations
for employment with the federal government were likely to have
their names removed from the hiring lists because of blindness.
Blind persons objected to this kind of treatment, and by the end of
that decade, the policy had been changed. It was possible for blind
persons to take some tests to qualify for employment with the
federal government, and a few■but a very few■were beginning to be
hired. For decades an ongoing effort has been made to develop more
and better employment opportunities for the blind. Still, for the
blind, work opportunities are limited. Often individuals
responsible for hiring do not believe most blind persons can handle
a given position, even though some blind persons are already doing
it. Often promotions for blind persons do not come when they are
deserved and when sighted colleagues in comparable situations
receive them. Often supervisors do not give challenging assignments
to blind employees. In other words, although progress for blind
persons working over the past decades has been substantial, there
is a long way to go. This is true of employment with the federal
government, with state and local governments, and in private
business.
     Blind people are working as farmers, lawyers, doctors,
teachers, assembly workers, secretaries, and janitors. Blind people
are social workers, engineers, librarians, printers, salespeople,
machinists, dishwashers, managers, and writers. Blind people are a
cross section of society; and, as such, they are doing the whole
range of jobs.
     But, for every blind person who is competitively employed,
there are nearly three who are equally well-qualified and eager to
work  but have not yet found an opportunity. Today it is often
possible for blind persons to get the training and education they
need to become competitive. It is often not yet possible for a
blind person to get the opportunity to work in competitive
employment. This is why JOB exists: to improve Job Opportunities
for the Blind.

Where can parents of blind children get help?

     The best source for such help is the National Organization of
Parents of Blind Children. This organization, headquartered at the
National Center for the Blind, 1800 Johnson Street, Baltimore,
Maryland 21230 is a national organization of parents and friends of
blind children reaching out to each other to give vital support,
encouragement, and information.
     Parents, relatives, educators, blind adults, and anyone
interested in promoting opportunities for blind children may join.
Local parent support groups are also welcome to affiliate.
     The goals of the organization are:
     1. To create a climate of opportunity for blind children in
home and society.
     2. To provide information and support to parents of blind
children.
     3. To facilitate the sharing of experience and concerns among
parents of blind children.
     4. To develop and expand resources available to parents and
their blind children.
     5. To help parents of blind children gain understanding and
perspective through partnership and contact with blind adults.
     6. To achieve for the blind security, equality, and
opportunity.
     In order to accomplish these goals, the National Organization
of Parents of Blind Children sponsors national, state, and local
workshops for parents; distributes free literature about blindness;
co-sponsors (with the National Association to Promote the Use of
Braille) a national Braille reading contest; coordinates a number
of networking services, including one for parents of blind multiply
handicapped children; and provides information, advice, support,
and independent evaluations for parents seeking the best services
for their children.

Why don't more blind people (especially those who have been blind
from childhood) read Braille?

     Unfortunately a great many blind people (including most blind
children in school today) have not been taught Braille. Many
excuses are offered for this shameful neglect of the basic
educational needs of the blind, but we believe that the real reason
is that most teachers of blind children do not know Braille at all
or do not know it well enough to teach it. In fact, the official
statistics paint a grim picture. The number of blind children who
can read Braille is declining. In 1968 forty percent of the blind
students registered with the American Printing House for the Blind
enrolled in elementary and secondary schools read Braille. In 1993
fewer than nine percent of the registered blind students could read
Braille.
     This is a disgraceful situation, and we are doing all that we
can do to change it.

What are you doing to try to improve Braille instruction for blind
children?

     We are working to require that all teachers who teach blind
children must pass a Braille competency test developed and
administered by the National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped of the Library of Congress.

Is there a library where children's story books in Braille can be
borrowed?

     The American Action Fund for Blind Children and Adults
operates a national lending library for blind children with a large
collection (more than 40,000 volumes) of children's Braille and
Twin Vision books. Twin Vision books contain Braille and print
pages side by side so that parents and children (regardless of
which one is blind and which one is sighted) can read together.
Library books are loaned free of charge to individuals and schools.
For more information write to the American Action Fund for Blind
Children and Adults, 1800 Johnson Street, Baltimore, Maryland
21230.
     Some local libraries for the blind also loan books appropriate
for blind children. Most of these libraries are affiliated with the
National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped
of the Library of Congress; 1291 Taylor Street, N.W.; Washington,
D.C. 20542. Ask for our "State Resource List."

What is the Braille Readers are Leaders contest?

     This is an annual nationwide reading club involving thousands
of blind children from kindergarten through high school. The
program is jointly sponsored by the National Association to Promote
the Use of Braille and the National Organization of Parents of
Blind Children. Cash and other prizes are given for the amount of
Braille reading done; children receive public recognition; and the
attention of the general public is called to the importance and
usefulness of Braille.

Where can children's story books in Braille or combination print
and Braille be purchased?

     Such books can be purchased from the following sources:
          Braille International, Inc.
          Attention: William A. Thomas Braille Bookstore
          3290 Southeast Slater Street
          Stuart, Florida 34997
          Telephone [phone] or [phone]

          National Braille Press
          88 St. Stephen Street
          Boston, Massachusetts 02115
          Telephone [phone]

          Seedlings: Braille Books for Children
          P. O. Box 2395
          Livonia, Michigan 48151-0395
          Telephone [phone]

Where can I buy toys for a blind child?

     You can find many appropriate toys in your regular toy or
department store. For a list of commercially available toys which
are especially suitable for blind children or for sources of
specially adapted toys and games, write to us at the National
Federation of the Blind and ask for our ■Toy Resource List.■

What is the National Association to Promote the Use of Braille?

     The National Association to Promote the Use of Braille (NAPUB)
is a nationwide organization of blind and interested sighted
persons who want to strengthen Braille literacy among the blind.
NAPUB has the following objectives:
     To raise awareness (among the blind as well as the sighted)
concerning the importance of reading and writing Braille; to
promote and support public and private efforts directed toward the
establishment and enlargement of facilities for producing and
distributing Braille materials; to seek changes in policies and
practices in governmental and private agencies which would cause
increases in the availability of Braille reading matter in schools,
libraries, and the blind community at large; and to raise standards
in the teaching of Braille and the training of those who teach it.
     In conjunction with the National Organization of Parents of
Blind Children NAPUB seeks to encourage blind children to develop
a proficiency in Braille reading skill, which will enhance their
quest for knowledge and provide meaningful recreation. This is done
through the sponsorship of a national annual Braille reading
contest for school children from kindergarten through twelfth
grade.

How can blind adults learn Braille?

     Braille instruction for blind adults is offered by a number of
training centers. Also many members of the National Federation of
the Blind who are skilled Braille readers themselves are willing to
help other blind people learn Braille. Regardless of where you live
we will be glad to try to help make arrangements on an individual
basis.

Can older people who are losing their sight learn Braille■and
should they?

     Most can if they want to. They use Braille for telephone
numbers, card games, personal notes, and labeling canned goods and
similar items. Some use it for reading books or magazines. Others
get information through different techniques: using a tape recorder
for messages, reading books and magazines in recorded form, and
learning to make efficient and comfortable use of sighted
assistance. The important thing is to realize that there is no
single right way. It depends on what works best and most
efficiently for the individual. Braille can be fun and useful to
the older person who is losing sight, but it should not be viewed
as an obligation.

How can a sighted person learn Braille?

     The best way is by taking the Braille transcription course
offered through the National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped of the Library of Congress; 1291 Taylor
Street, N.W.; Washington, D.C. 20542; telephone [phone] or
[phone].

Are there magazines of special interest to the blind and visually
impaired?

     There are quite a number. The Braille Monitor is a monthly
magazine published by the National Federation of the Blind in
Braille, in print, on cassette, and on talking book record. The
Braille Monitor keeps blind and interested sighted readers informed
about issues, news, and events which have special significance to
the blind and those who are losing sight.
     The National Organization of Parents of Blind Children
publishes Future Reflections, a quarterly magazine in print and on
cassette tape, which provides insight into all aspects of raising
and educating blind and partially sighted children from infancy to
adulthood. Contact us to receive without charge the special issue
for new subscribers or for further information.
     The Diabetics Division of the National Federation of the Blind
produces in newspaper format a free quarterly publication called
the Voice of the Diabetic. Almost a hundred thousand copies are
distributed to doctors' offices, hospitals, schools, libraries,
social service agencies, and individuals to give information about
the problems of diabetics who are experiencing loss of sight and
how the problems are being met. Encouragement and facts are
provided through personal, firsthand experience.
     For sample copies or to get on the mailing list of any of
these publications contact the National Federation of the Blind,
1800 Johnson Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21230.

Is there a special organization for blind or visually impaired
students?

     Yes. The National Association of Blind Students has membership
throughout the country and serves as a self-help group and source
of information. It holds a meeting in July of each year in
conjunction with the convention of the National Federation of the
Blind, as well as regional and local meetings and seminars. It
holds a national meeting and seminar each January in Washington,
D.C.

What scholarships are available to blind students?

     Blind students can take advantage of the same scholarship
programs that are available to sighted students and should be
encouraged to do so. However, there are also scholarships which are
only available to blind students. The National Federation of the
Blind, for example, awards over $75,000 a year in scholarships to
worthy blind students. Contact us for further information.

I have a dog that I would like to donate to the blind. Can you tell
me how I can do this?

     A guide dog school may train several breeds of dogs to serve
as working guide dogs, or it may train only one. In most cases,
however, these schools prefer to breed their own dogs. In some
instances the school will accept donations of dogs ranging from one
to three years old. These dogs are rarely obtained from outside the
community where the school is located. It is important for the
schools to examine and observe the dog before accepting it to
determine the health, temperament, and social interaction of the
dog.
     Guide dog schools conduct what are known as ■puppy programs,■
or ■foster home■ programs, in which puppies are placed to live with
a family until they are one year old. These foster families are
generally found within the school's local community since the
families typically attend classes several times per month. While
some schools have families who traditionally participate in the
"puppy program," most of these foster homes are through local Lions
or 4-H Clubs.

Are there some things to keep in mind when you see a blind person
using a guide dog?

     Yes, a few. Here they are:
     1.  Never call the dog's name, talk to the dog, or make
distracting noises while it is in harness and working.
     2.  Never feed the dog since feeding it may make control of
the dog difficult in a restaurant.
     3.  Never touch or play with the dog while it is working.
     4.  Never take hold of the person, the dog, or the dog's
harness at any time.  The blind person has been taught to listen to
traffic patterns and to give the "forward" command when it is safe
to cross.  Although the dog is color blind, it avoids cars as it
would any other obstacle.
     5.  Do not assume that the dog automatically knows where the
blind person wants to go.  The blind person must know where he or
she is going in order to give the dog the appropriate directional
commands.  If the blind person is traveling in unfamiliar
surroundings he or she may ask for directions just as a sighted
person would.
     6.  When giving directions to a guide dog user, speak only to
the person.  Do not call the dog or try to get it to follow you.
Be specific about where turns are to be made so that the blind
person can direct the dog accordingly.
     7.  If assistance is requested by the blind person, allow the
blind person to take your arm or the give the dog a command to
follow you.  The blind person should be the one to choose which
method is best.

Who were the pioneers in the organized blind movement?

     There were many, but two stand out: Newel Perry and Jacobus
tenBroek.
     Newel Perry was born in Northern California in 1874. He became
both blind and an orphan as a child and was taken to the California
State School for the Blind at Berkeley. He was the first blind
person ever to graduate from the University of California, where he
majored in mathematics. By 1900 he was in Europe, working on a
doctor's degree in mathematics. He returned to the United States in
1904 and spent ten years trying to find a job as a university
professor, a position for which he was eminently qualified. Every
door was closed.
     In 1914 he decided to return to the California School for the
Blind as a teacher so that he might help the next generation of the
blind have the opportunities that he had missed. During the next
third of a century he trained and developed a remarkable group of
successful blind persons■lawyers, administrators, a legislator, and
a range of others in various walks of life.
     His most brilliant student was Jacobus tenBroek, who
established the National Federation of the Blind in 1940. Totally
blind, tenBroek earned five college degrees, including a doctorate
from Harvard and another from the University of California at
Berkeley. He wrote five full-length books on subjects of
constitutional law and at least a hundred scholarly articles and
monographs. He taught at the University of Chicago, was a professor
at the University of California at Berkeley, and received many
honors and awards.
     From the point of view of the blind, however, his most
important contribution was his leadership in establishing and
promoting the organized blind movement in the United States. He
helped blind persons achieve hope and self-belief, and he left
behind him a strong and enduring organization.
     The blind of the United States and the world would not have
the opportunity and the prospect for full lives that they have
today if it had not been for Newel Perry and Jacobus tenBroek.

Was Helen Keller the first deaf-blind person in the United States
to be educated?

     Contrary to popular belief, the answer is no. It was Laura
Bridgeman, who was born in 1829 and died in 1889. She was a student
of Dr. Samuel Howe, Director of Perkins School for the Blind.  He
worked with deaf-blind students and developed the basic methods of
communication later used by Anne Sullivan in her work with Helen
Keller. Laura Bridgeman lost her sight and hearing after an attack
of scarlet fever when she was two. Her teacher began by taking such
common objects as a key, spoon, and knife and pasting on each a
label with the name of the object in raised letters. By learning to
identify first the objects themselves and then the embossed words
for them, she was subsequently able to match a correct unattached
label with the appropriate object. Later, she was given the
individual letters, which she learned to arrange into words. At
first she performed these tasks by rote, until she finally
perceived that each object had a name, and her understanding was
awakened to the concept of communication through language. She was
then given a set of metal types with raised letters at the end and
a board with holes into which they would fit, so that they could be
read with the finger. She never learned to speak but was taught the
manual alphabet of the deaf with words spelled into her hand. This
became her primary means of communication. In this manner she
studied a variety of advanced subjects.

What are some of the accomplishments of Helen Keller?

     Helen Keller was born in 1880 and died in 1968. She became
deaf and blind at the age of 19 months through a damaging brain
fever. In the beginning her only means of communication was through
hysterical laughing or violent tantrums. Later with the help of her
teacher, Anne Sullivan, Helen Keller learned to read and write
Braille and eventually to speak. She gave lectures and did other
public speaking and was the author of a number of books. She earned
advanced college degrees, traveled to many countries, and became
world renowned.          WHO IS BLIND?
                       by Kenneth Jernigan

     Before we can talk intelligently about the problems of
blindness or the potentialities of blind people, we must have a
workable definition of blindness. Most of us are likely familiar
with the generally accepted legal definition: visual acuity of not
greater than 20/200 in the better eye with correction or a field
not subtending an angle greater than 20 degrees. But this is not
really a satisfactory definition. It is, rather, a way of
recognizing in medical and measurable terms something which must be
defined not medically or physically but functionally.
     Putting to one side for a moment the medical terminology, what
is blindness? Once I asked a group of high school students this
question, and one of them replied■apparently believing that he was
making a rather obvious statement■that a person is blind if he
■can't see.■ When the laughter subsided, I asked the student if he
really meant what he said. He replied that he did. I then asked him
whether he would consider a person blind who could see light but
who could not see objects■a person who would bump into things
unless he used a cane, a dog, or some other travel aid and who
would, if he depended solely on the use of his eyesight, walk
directly into a telephone pole or fire plug. After some little
hesitation the student said that he would consider such a person to
be blind. I agreed with him and then went on to point out the
obvious■that he literally did not mean that the definition of
blindness was to be unable to see.
     I next told this student of a man I had known who had ■normal■
(20/20) visual acuity in both eyes but who had such an extreme case
of sensitivity to light that he literally could not keep his eyes
open at all. The slightest amount of light caused such excruciating
pain that the only way he could open his eyes was by prying them
open with his fingers. Nevertheless, this person, despite the
excruciating pain he felt while doing it, could read the eye chart
without difficulty. The readings showed that he had ■normal sight.■
This individual applied to the local governmental agency for
assistance and was duly examined by their ophthalmologist. The
question I put to the student was this: "If you had been the
ophthalmologist, would you have granted the aid or not?"
     His answer was, "Yes."
     "Remember," I told him, "under the law you are forbidden to
give aid to any person who is not actually blind. Would you still
have granted the assistance?" The student said that he would.
Again, I agreed with him, but I pointed out that, far from his
first facetious statement, what he was saying was this: It is
possible for one to have "perfect sight" and still in the physical,
literal sense of the word be blind.
     I then put a final question to the student. I asked him
whether if a sighted person were put into a vault which was
absolutely dark so that he could see nothing whatever, it would be
accurate to refer to that sighted person as a blind man. After some
hesitation and equivocation the student said, "No." For a third
time I agreed with him. Then I asked him to examine what we had
established:
     1. To be blind does not mean that one cannot see. (Here again
I must interrupt to say that I am not speaking in spiritual or
figurative terms but in the most literal sense of the word.)
     2. It is possible for an individual to have "perfect sight"
and yet be physically and literally blind.
     3. It is possible for an individual not to be able to see at
all and still be a sighted person.
     What, then, in light of these seeming contradictions is the
definition of blindness? In my way of thinking it is this: One is
blind to the extent that he must devise alternative techniques to
do efficiently those things which he would do with sight if he had
normal vision. An individual may properly be said to be "blind" or
a "blind person" when he has to devise so many alternative
techniques■that is, if he is to function efficiently■that his
pattern of daily living is substantially altered. It will be
observed that I say alternative not substitute techniques, for the
word substitute connotes inferiority, and the alternative
techniques employed by the blind person need not be inferior to
visual techniques. In fact, some of them are superior. The usually
accepted legal definition of blindness already given (that is,
visual acuity of less than 20/200 with correction or a field of
less than 20 degrees) is simply one medical way of measuring and
recognizing that anyone with better vision than the amount
mentioned in the definition will (although he may have to devise
some alternative techniques) likely not have to devise so many such
techniques as to alter substantially his patterns of daily living.
On the other hand, anyone with less vision than that mentioned in
the legal definition will usually (I emphasize the word usually,
for such is not always the case) need to devise so many such
alternative techniques as to alter quite substantially his patterns
of daily living.
     It may be of some interest to apply this standard to the three
cases already discussed:
     First, what of the person who has light perception but sees
little or nothing else? In at least one situation he can function
as a sighted person. If, before going to bed, he wishes to know
whether the lights are out in his home, he can simply walk through
the house and "see." If he did not have light perception, he would
have to use some alternative technique■touch the bulb, tell by the
position of the switch, have some sighted person give him the
information, or devise some other method. However, this person is
still quite properly referred to as a blind person. This one visual
technique which he uses is such a small part of his overall pattern
of daily living as to be negligible in the total picture. The
patterns of his daily living are substantially altered. In the main
he employs alternative techniques to do those things which he would
do with sight if he had normal vision■that is, he does if he
functions efficiently.
     Next, let us consider the person who has normal visual acuity
but cannot hold his eyes open because of his sensitivity to light.
He must devise alternative techniques to do anything which he would
do with sight if he had normal vision. He is quite properly
considered to be a "blind person."
     Finally, what of the sighted person who is put into a vault
which has no light? Even though he can see nothing at all, he is
still quite properly considered to be a "sighted person." He uses
the same techniques that any other sighted person would use in a
similar situation. There are no visual techniques which can be used
in such circumstances. In fact, if a blind person found himself in
such a situation, he might very well have a variety of techniques
to use.
     I repeat that, in my opinion, blindness can best be defined
not physically or medically but functionally or sociologically. The
alternative techniques which must be learned are the same for those
born blind as for those who become blind as adults. They are quite
similar (or should be) for those who are totally blind or nearly so
and those who are "partially sighted" and yet are blind in the
terms of the usually accepted legal definition. In other words, I
believe that the complex distinctions which are often made between
those who are totally blind, between those who have been blind from
childhood and those who have become blind as adults are largely
meaningless. In fact, they are often harmful since they place the
wrong emphasis on blindness and its problems. Perhaps the greatest
danger in the field of work for the blind today is the tendency to
be hypnotized by jargon.BRAILLE WHAT IS IT? WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO THE BLIND?

     Braille was first developed about 1820 by a young Frenchman
named Louis Braille. He created Braille by modifying a system of
night writing which was intended for use on board ships. He did
this work as a very young man and had it complete by the time he
was about 18. He and his friends at the school for the blind he
attended found that reading and writing dots was much faster than
reading raised print letters which could not be written by hand at
all. The development of this system by young Louis Braille is now
recognized as the most important single development in making it
possible for the blind to get a good education.
     It took more than a century, however, before people would
accept Braille as an excellent way for the blind to read and write.
Even today many people underestimate the effectiveness of Braille.
While tapes and records are enjoyable, Braille is essential for
note taking and helpful for studying such things as math, spelling,
and foreign languages.
     Experienced Braille readers, however, read Braille at speeds
comparable to print readers■200 to 400 words a minute. Such Braille
readers say that the only limitation of Braille is that there isn't
enough material available.
     Braille consists of arrangements of dots which make up letters
of the alphabet, numbers and punctuation marks. The basic Braille
symbol is called the Braille cell and consists of six dots arranged
in the formation of a rectangle, three dots high and two across.
Other symbols consist of only some of these six dots. The six dots
are commonly referred to by number according to their position in
the cell.
     There are no different symbols for capital letters in Braille.
Capitalization is accomplished by placing a dot 6 in the cell just
before the letter that is capitalized. The first ten letters of the
alphabet are used to make numbers. These are preceded by a number
sign which is dots 3-4-5-6.
     Thus, 1 is number sign a; 2 is number sign b; 10 is number
sign a-j and 193 is number sign a-i-c.
     Some abbreviations are used in standard American Braille in
order to reduce its bulk. These must be memorized, but most Braille
readers and writers find them convenient, rather than a problem.
Braille is written on heavy paper, and the raised dots prevent the
pages from lying smoothly together as they would in a print book.
Therefore, Braille books are quite bulky.
     A Braille writing machine (comparable to a typewriter) has a
keyboard of only six keys and a space bar, instead of one key for
each letter of the alphabet. These keys can be pushed separately or
altogether. If they are all pushed at the same time they will cause
six dots to be raised on the paper in the formation of a Braille
cell. Pushing various combinations of the keys on the Braille
writer produces different letters of the alphabet and other Braille
symbols.
     Writing Braille with a slate and stylus compares to writing
print with a pen and pencil. The stylus is used to push dots down
through the paper, while the slate serves as a guide. The Braille
slate can be made of metal or plastic and is hinged so that there
is a guide under the paper and on top of it. A person writing
Braille with the slate and stylus begins at the right side of the
paper and ends the line on the left, since the dots are being
produced on the underside of the paper. Of course, the Braille
reader reads from left to right, for the dots are then on the top
side of the paper. Although this may seem a bit confusing, it need
not be at all troublesome, since both reading and writing progress
through words and sentences from beginning to end in the same
manner. The speed of writing Braille with the slate and stylus is
about the same as the speed of writing print with pen or pencil.
     Braille embossing devices can be attached to computers instead
of or in addition to regular inkprint printers. A special computer
program converts the print text to Braille. This gives blind people
access to the same information sighted people get from computers.
     It is a matter of great concern to members of the National
Federation of the Blind that fewer blind people now have the
opportunity to become good Braille users than twenty-five years
ago. A controversy now exists as to who should learn Braille and
under what circumstances, but certain things are generally agreed
upon. Blind children (and also adults) should make full use of
computers, tape recorders, and any other available technology.
Visually impaired children should be encouraged to make the best
use of any eyesight they have, including learning to read print.
     But a legally blind child (one with less than ten percent of
normal eyesight) cannot function efficiently using print alone.
Sighted children have computers and recorders, but they still learn
to read print. They use both eyes and ears to get information.
Likewise, if a blind or severely visually impaired child is to
compete, not only ears but also fingers should be used. Technology
enhances but does not substitute for the printed word.
     Then why the controversy? Many of today's teachers of blind
children take a single college course on how to teach Braille but
cannot read or write it. Because of their lack of knowledge, they
tend to think Braille is slow and inefficient. Being uncomfortable
with what they don't know, they say that Braille is not needed and
opt for expensive technology.
     There is also the fact that blindness still carries with it a
stigma, and many (including some parents and teachers) want blind
children to pretend to have sight they don't possess so as not to
be considered blind■the same thing blacks did fifty years ago when
some tried to lighten their skins and straighten their hair to try
to cross the color line. It didn't work and wasn't healthy for the
blacks. The same is true for the blind. The National Federation of
the Blind believes it is respectable to be blind, and we don't try
to hide it.
     Thousands of blind people read Braille at four hundred words
per minute. There's no substitute for Braille in taking notes,
reading a speech, looking up words in a dictionary, studying a
complicated text, or just having the fun of reading for yourself.
     Talk of forcing blind children to learn Braille shows the
prejudice. Nobody talks of forcing sighted children to learn print.
It is taken for granted as a right, a necessary part of education;
so it should be with Braille and blind children.
     The National Federation of the Blind is asking state licensing
officials to require teachers of the blind and visually handicapped
to be competent in reading and writing Braille and to require that
instruction in Braille be available to every visually handicapped
child if parents want it.
     The National Federation of the Blind believes that no child is
hurt by learning Braille, print, or any other skill. The federal
act often cited as the excuse for not making Braille universally
available to the blind is misquoted. The requirement that each
child's individual needs be met was never meant as a cop-out for
teachers and an excuse for illiteracy. Just as with the sighted, we
the blind need every skill we can get to compete in today's world.
With proper training we can hold our own with the best.INDEPENDENT TRAVEL

     When you think about traveling, it is a good idea to start
with what you know best. You know a great deal about your own
home■your house or apartment. You know the arrangement of the
furniture, the shape and size of the rooms, the location of stair
steps. If blindness were to occur suddenly, you might move about
slowly and cautiously at first. But you would still have the same
knowledge of your surroundings. When blindness comes to a person,
that person must use different techniques to get the same
information. Although the techniques are different from those used
by the sighted, they are just as effective and just as easy to use.
Your surroundings haven't changed, and you already know a lot about
where you live. Using common sense to learn about your environment,
you as a blind person can discover what you need to know and get
around efficiently and gracefully without much trouble at all.
     In the initial stages of blindness, family members will often
want to help you to get about in your home. It is desirable that
you learn to do this without assistance as quickly as possible.
With a little practice you will be able to find your way by
yourself, and it will help you gain confidence in yourself as a
blind person. All people (blind or sighted) bump into doorways or
knock their heads on open cabinet doors occasionally. This may be
annoying, but it is nothing to get upset about. The family pet will
learn to get out of your way. You will be obliged to learn to
manage with the other obstacles that are not able to see you
coming■the chairs, the footstools, the coffee table, and the vacuum
cleaner. For a person who has recently become blind, the problem
about dealing with furniture in the middle of the room may seem to
be a major concern. However, with a little experience, managing
day-to-day activities in your own home becomes a matter of routine.
     It is often assumed that a blind person cannot go anywhere
alone. Tens of thousands of blind people travel alone every day to
work, to civic functions, to recreational facilities, and to
shopping areas. The long white cane or the guide dog are the tools
most often used for independent travel.
     The white cane is a long, thin object usually reaching from
the ground to shoulder height. It is often made of fiber glass,
carbon fiber, or metal. Some people, blind or otherwise, who have
trouble walking need support canes■the sturdy waist-high kind with
a hook-shaped handle on top. These support canes are much shorter
than the travel canes used by the blind. Both white support canes
and white travel canes may be purchased from the National
Federation of the Blind.
     Either a long white cane or a guide dog can be used to find
out all that is necessary to know about sidewalks, streets, steps,
and obstacles. When you travel as a blind person you must get
information about traffic movement by listening to it.
Inexperienced blind travelers must practice in order to learn to
use the information obtained in this way as effectively as they
used the information provided by eyesight in the past. Traveling
without vision is a new skill, but one that can easily be learned
in a few months.
     It is not unusual for a newly blinded person to be very
frightened at the idea of walking alone on the street with only a
white cane. With experience and practice, this fear will diminish,
and you will enjoy your new accomplishment. If you are walking with
a friend or relative, it is a good idea to take the cane along also
because you will want to get the same information from your cane
that you would when traveling alone. Carrying your cane also gives
you maximum flexibility. You may want to split up for a time from
your friends and meet again later.
     When the cane is being used during travel it should be long
enough that the tip rests on the ground a step and a half or two
steps in front of you when you hold the handle slightly above your
waist at the center of your body. The handle of the cane should
remain centered in front of you and should be held with your hand
cupped beneath it and your fingers grasping it. The tip of your
cane should be swung back and forth from one side of your body to
the other, using wrist motion to move it. Your arm should not move
back and forth. This enables you to protect yourself from obstacles
in front and on both sides of you. It also gives you needed
information about steps and obstacles in time to make use of it.
     Generally, it is desirable for you to tap the cane each time
you take a step. As you step with your right foot, tap your cane on
the left-hand side of the path that you intend to travel about two
inches farther out than your left shoulder will go. As the left
foot moves forward, move your cane to the right. This motion
becomes automatic, and with practice you will react instantly and
easily to information supplied by the cane.
     The technique for traveling with a white cane is simple and
can be learned in a few minutes. You should tailor your use of the
cane to the situation at hand. For example, in a crowd you will
want to keep the cane closer to your body to avoid tripping people
ahead of you. When climbing up steps, you will probably want to
hold your cane vertically, letting the tip bump the step ahead of
you. At these times you will want to hold the cane at a point below
its handle because the cane is too long to grasp its top. When the
cane does not bump a step, you will know you have reached the top
of the flight of steps. Similarly, you will probably wish to let
the tip of the cane touch each step ahead of you as you descend a
flight of steps. You will find other situations in which you may
wish to use the cane somewhat differently. For example if you are
baking a cake in your kitchen, and if you drop a cup measure on the
floor, you may discover that it is faster to locate the lost cup
measure by putting your cane flat on the floor and sliding it from
side to side until it hits the cup. Your cane is meant to be a
tool, and you are the best person to know how to use it to get the
information you need.
     A white cane can vary in length from 24 to 69 inches. The
length you choose will depend on your height and the speed at which
you wish to travel. Taller people and those who walk faster need
longer canes than shorter, more slow-moving folks. Probably the
most satisfactory cane is one which is rigid and flexible. There
are a number of folding or telescoping canes. These will work if
they are rigid but flexible when fully extended.
     Blind travelers often find the landmark system of travel to be
quite effective. If you know that there is a bakery on the corner,
the smell of freshly fried doughnuts will tell you that you're
getting close to it. The aroma of a shoe store, the sound of a
particular revolving door or escalator, the noise of a school bell,
a particular piece of rough pavement■these can all be indicators
which help to pinpoint your location.
     These are only a few suggestions. There are many other ways to
gain the information you need. You can ask a passerby to read a
sign or tell you what businesses are nearby.
     Blind travelers are also frequent users of public
transportation■trains, buses, and subways. Most transportation
systems have a telephone number to call for information about
routes of travel and times of departure. If you are using public
transportation, you may need to be told where to catch the bus or
subway. For a newly-blinded traveler, major transportation hubs may
seem confusing at first. The National Federation of the Blind has
chapters in almost every city of any size. We may be able to help
you locate a blind traveler who can give you tips about public
transit. Perhaps a person familiar with the area can help.
     Whether you travel with a guide dog or a cane, approach
independent travel as an adventure. Blind people are often told
that we should stay at home. Quite the opposite is true. The blind
(just as others) should be a part of the world in which we live. We
can be full participants in the mainstream of our culture. We can,
that is, if we travel. For fun, for work, for the discharge of
civic duty, for essential errands, for social occasions, travel is
necessary and the blind can do it independently.
     If you would like more information about using a long white
cane ask for our book, The Care and Feeding of the Long White Cane.
We will be glad to send you a large print copy of this book without
charge.               Cooking Techniques

     A cook who becomes blind still has a lifetime of experience
and knowledge about food■a resource to be prized. There is no
reason for a blind person to be frightened of hot stoves, electric
mixers, sharp knives, or anything else in the kitchen. It is
important to take the same good-sense precautions you always did:
don't leave cloth potholders on the stove; don't stack glasses in
the sink, and so forth. Accidents occur because of carelessness,
whether the cook is blind or sighted.
     First of all, it does not hurt food to touch it if your hands
are clean. You can measure a cup or a half cup of milk by touch.
When the liquid reaches the half■cup line or the top of the cup,
you can feel the milk there. The best way to be sure that all the
lumps are out of a stiff cookie dough is to finish mixing it with
your hands. A light, quick touch with your finger will help you
determine whether hamburger or steak or biscuits are brown. When
brown they will be rougher and dryer than when raw. It is also
possible to tell by touch when pie crust or pizza dough is smooth
and when all the holes have been removed. You can tell by touch if
cake frosting covers the entire cake and is smooth or if brownie
dough in the pan is level. You can tell by touch when a bowl is
scraped clean. These things require that the blind cook wash his or
her hands often, but they work and the food is good.
      In most situations no special equipment is necessary; all
that is needed is to use the other senses well, as in listening for
when the carrots begin to boil. Many items of equipment designed
for the sighted are especially appropriate for the blind as
well■pie-cutting guides and metal measuring cups, for example. The
kitchen timer which is sold on the regular market but happens to
have well-placed raised markings is another example.
     Plan the storage of your equipment and utensils so that you
will not waste time unnecessarily in looking around for them. At
the same time, however, you should realize that your plans will not
always work perfectly in practice; you should be able to hunt
around if necessary and find an item which someone else has put
away in a different place.
     Many helpful tools and appliances are available. However, in
most situations it is a matter of personal choice as to whether to
buy a special appliance or to use another approach (such as
adapting a regular tool or appliance or using a different method).
Avoid over-dependence on special tools or rigidly defined
techniques.
     The blind person often uses the sense of touch to gain
information that a sighted person would probably gain through
sight. The experienced blind cook can abide by any requirements of
sanitation and formality as necessary. He or she is able to avoid
directly touching any of the food with the fingers, by such means
as wearing thin plastic gloves or using a utensil or appliance.
Whenever we speak of touching something, it should be assumed that
the experienced cook can find a way to avoid using unprotected
fingers if circumstances so require.

Recipes

     Braille and large print cookbooks are available on loan from
many libraries for the blind. A few cookbooks in recorded form also
exist; these may be helpful to those who have severe circulatory
problems or other special difficulties in learning Braille. If you
do not know the location of your local library for the blind, you
may inquire of us; your regular local public library; or the
National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped,
Library of Congress; 1291 Taylor St., N.W.; Washington, D.C. 20542.
Also, we can provide information about where cookbooks may be
purchased.
     Braille recipe files may also be made. Although the user of an
inkprint recipe file prefers to have the front of each card facing
toward him, with the title at the top, most Braille readers prefer
a different arrangement. You will probably prefer to insert the
Braille cards with the top down, with the Brailled side of each
card away from you; this way your fingers will reach the Braille
most comfortably. Because of this, the title of each recipe should
be placed below the recipe as it is written on the card; the titles
will then be easily accessible as the bottoms of the cards appear
at the top of the file box. Similarly, labels on file dividers
should be placed upside down on the backs of the tabs.
     A frequently-used recipe will last longer if a plastic page or
card is used. It is also helpful, while using a particular recipe,
to tape it to the inside of a cupboard door, or in some other way
support it so that it is not lying on the mixing surface, and thus
keep it as clean as possible.

Shopping

     You will select, from many good alternatives, the method of
marketing that works best for you in a particular set of
circumstances. Most grocery stores, especially during the less busy
hours, are willing to assign an employee to accompany you around
the store and assemble your order as you direct. Alternatively, you
may choose to shop with a friend or relative. If you hire a reader
or a driver, you may decide to use him or her as a shopping
assistant on occasion. You may wish to telephone a store that will
deliver.
     Be systematic as you place the groceries on your shelves at
home. Plan where to keep each kind of item, and be consistent. If
containers cannot easily be distinguished by touch, label them in
Braille. (Store clerks and delivery men should be willing to read
the inkprint labels for you as necessary.) One way of labeling is
to write the name of the item on a 3" x 5" card, and then attach
the card to the container with a rubber band.

Measuring Ingredients

     Metal measuring cups and spoons sold on the regular market are
very convenient for the blind cook. Using measuring spoons with dry
ingredients is no different for the blind cook than for the
sighted. For liquids, however, we suggest that you bend the spoon
so that the bowl is at right angles to the handle; keep each liquid
ingredient in a wide-mouthed jar, so that the bent spoon may simply
be lowered into it and then lifted out full. A popular convention
is to bend the one-half teaspoon and one-tablespoon measures in
each set, so that half of the spoons are adapted for liquids and so
that the spoons can be told apart by touch very quickly and easily.
Steel spoons can be easily bent without damage.
     It is very convenient to use nesting measuring cups and fill
the appropriate measure completely full in the usual manner. A
one-cup measuring cup with raised fractional markings on the inside
may also be used, however.
     If a recipe calls for a measured amount of boiling water, we
suggest that you measure the water before heating it. If you use
the water immediately when it begins to boil, the evaporation loss
will not be significant.

Cutting, Grating, and Peeling

     The actual process of peeling, slicing, or grating is no
different for the blind than for the sighted. As in all phases of
cooking, safety depends upon competence and care rather than upon
sight.
     It is much easier and more satisfactory to grate or cut into
a large bowl rather than onto a flat surface. The food is then
automatically collected and easily manageable.
     If you are a beginner who has had little or no experience in
using a knife, you may find it easier and safer at first to cut
downward toward a cutting board. The experienced cook uses a knife
in various positions, however; and the newly blinded experienced
cook will probably not change her ways of using a knife.
     A suggested method for chopping vegetables into small pieces
is as follows: Slice the vegetables into a large bowl. Then use a
■Kwik-Kut Food Chopper,■ which resembles a round cookie or biscuit
cutter but is very sharp on the bottom. (This cutter is available
on the general market.) Chop the cutter up and down through the
slices, moving around within the bowl and continuing until the
pieces are the desired size and uniformity.

Pouring, Draining, and Mixing

     If a tray or cookie sheet with raised edges is placed
underneath the bowl while pouring and mixing, messiness and loss
due to spillage can be minimized. A tray is also helpful for the
same reason when carrying things which might spill■for example, a
custard pie or gelatin dessert which has not yet set.
     Place several small desserts or custards together on one tray
in the oven or refrigerator.
     Whenever possible, avoid unnecessary carrying: for example,
measure ingredients immediately beside the mixing bowl, and prepare
gelatin near the refrigerator. You may even wish to place a
piecrust on the oven shelf before pouring in the liquid filling.

     An "Oven Saver"■a round metal sheet with crimped edges and
with a hole in the middle for heat circulation■is also good for
prevention of spillage problems with pies both outside and inside
the oven. This item is sold on the general market.
     There are many methods for pouring and draining.  For large
quantities, a nervous beginner may wish to dip with a cup or ladle;
however, pouring from one container to another in the regular
manner may be accomplished with some practice. You may keep one
hand on the receiving container to keep track of its location. With
practice it is relatively easy to learn to judge the fullness of a
container by sound and weight.
     Depending on formality and other circumstances, you may
determine when the desired level is reached by placing your finger
over the lip of the container, counting the number of dips with
your ladle, estimating, or using a liquid level indicator. With
very thick mixtures such as cake batter, check that the level is
even all across the pan. When filling an angel-food cake pan, cover
the hole in the middle with a small plastic bag or a tiny jelly
tin.
     Using a screw-top jar or other shaker to mix the flour with
the liquid is helpful in making white sauce and gravies.
     Probably the easiest method of draining vegetables is to pour
them into a colander or strainer: if the colander or strainer is
placed over a bowl, any spilled vegetables will be retrievable. The
experienced cook may prefer another method.
     There are several good methods for separating eggs. One way is
to break the shell into two unequal parts; lift off and discard the
small end; and then drain off the white. It is also possible to buy
a special tool for separating eggs.
     Stirring by hand usually presents no particular problem. Use
a bowl that is large enough to minimize splashing, and be sure to
scrape the sides of the bowl as necessary. If the bowl slides
around annoyingly, set it on a damp cloth or some other
non-slippery surface.
     Although the beginner may feel nervous about an electric
mixer, normal safety precautions make it as safe for the blind cook
as for the sighted. The condition of the mixture may be observed
and controlled by using a rubber spatula and/or by stopping the
machine to check with the fingers.
     For methods in pouring coffee or tea, see the paragraphs on
"Serving the Food."

Plugging in an Appliance

     If you are a beginner who has not yet learned how to plug in
an appliance safely, the following suggestions may be helpful:
First locate the outlet tactually and observe the orientation of
the holes. With your right hand holding the plug by the insulated
portion, bring the plug up to the outlet, but do not begin to push
it in. Checking with your left hand to see that the prongs are
oriented in the same direction as the holes, bring the plug up so
that the prongs are over the holes, but do not yet push the prongs
in, even part way. Remove your left hand, and be sure that your
right hand is touching only the insulated portion of the plug. Now
push the plug into the outlet.

Dials and controls

     Dials and controls may easily be adapted to use without sight.
With experience, you will be able to obtain the necessary
information quickly from the appliance salesman or some other
sighted person and arrange a plan to operate the dials easily and
accurately.
     For each dial or knob, you will need to define at least one
reference point on the moving part and at least one reference point
on the background behind it. You may have several reference points
on the dial and just one on the background, or you may have several
reference points on the background and just one on the dial.
     Look first for already-existing features which you can use.
Following are several examples of settings which can be used
without any added markings:
     (1) Turn the dial clockwise, or counterclockwise, as far as it
will go.
     (2) Move the dial to the next clearly-defined "click."
     (3) Place the pointer straight up, straight down, etc.
     (4) Place the dial halfway between two clearly-defined
positions.
     (5) Feel a screw, raised letter, or other tactual feature
which happens to be on the dial already.
     When the existing features are not sufficient for accurate use
by the blind, you will need to add one or more tactual markings.
Ideas include: filing small notches; applying actual Braille dots
or letters, as with a special Dymotape set; placing drops of glue,
paint, etc.; and etching glass. (Glass may be etched by using a
portable high-speed grinder with a V-shaped silicon carbide stone,
or a vibrating engraving tool with a silicon carbide or diamond
point.)
     Many knobs and dials can easily be removed to facilitate
marking. Observe carefully before removing, however, so that you
will be able to replace the dial correctly.
     The tactile markings need not necessarily be the same as the
inkprint markings, as long as they produce the desired results. If
the dial is particularly hard to mark, for example, it may be
possible to do most of the marking on the background instead of on
the dial.
     Use the minimum necessary marks, avoiding confusing clutter.
Probably you will not mark nearly as many points as the inkprint
dial has. On the heat control of a conventional oven, for example,
marking every 100 degrees is entirely adequate.  It is easy to set
a dial one-fourth, one-half, or three-fourths of the way between
two marks.

Microwave Ovens

     On most traditional ovens, tactual labels can be placed in the
obvious locations. On microwave ovens, however, sometimes there is
a heat sensor behind the printed label. In this case, if Braille is
placed in the same location as the print, the student searching for
the correct control may inadvertently turn on several unwanted
processes merely by gently touching certain spots. To deal with
this problem, place Braille labels above, below, or beside the
printed labels, in a strip or other consistent manner. The student
can search for the correct label, and then move up or down to the
actual control spot.
     As a further challenge, sometimes controls are so close
together that there is no room even for adjacent labels. Consider
these ideas, alone or in combination:
     ■Use simple one- or two-symbol Braille labels.
     ■Experiment to see how large the heat-sensitive spot actually
is. It may be much smaller than the printed label.
     ■Place double labels next to one row, indicating both that row
and the next one.
     ■Label one row, and memorize the row next to it.
     ■If there is no room for regular Braille symbols, place simple
tactual marks and memorize the meaning.

Using the Stove, Oven, or Electric Frying Pan

     Food may be placed in a pan, and the pan on a burner, before
the heat is turned on; this way, the pan and burner may be examined
tactually with safety. However, with experience you will rarely if
ever need to turn off the heat in order to replace a pan on the
burner.
     Similarly, if you are a beginner you may wish to examine a
conventional oven carefully while it is cold. Once you are familiar
with its arrangement, you will then be able to work confidently
when the oven is hot, using a mitt or a potholder. It is usually
better to pull out the oven shelf in order to insert or remove
something; the danger of a hand burn is then minimized because you
need not reach far inside the oven. Be sure that the shelves are
properly attached so that they will not pull out too far or tip
over.
     Although the beginner may feel hesitant about lighting a gas
stove or oven, the blind cook need only follow normal safety
precautions and observe the operation of the stove by means other
than sight. Listen for the sound of the flame lighting. If
necessary hold your hand above the burner or pilot light, at a safe
distance, to see whether it is still burning. With experience you
will be able to set the flame to the desired level by observing the
position of the control and the amount of heat generated. If
matches are required, the beginner may prefer large wooden ones and
may need to practice lighting them; however, the experienced cook
uses any available match.
     Usually you can tell when something starts to boil, by
listening and/or by feeling the vibration of the pan handle.
However, if the liquid is very thick, a Braille thermometer may be
useful. A beginner may wish to have the mixture stop boiling
temporarily before adding ingredients.
     Monitoring the cooking of a confection by placing a sample in
cold water and checking for the ■soft ball stage,■ etc., is done by
touch anyway, and should be no problem for the blind cook.
     If you use a pressure cooker, select a type which makes use of
sounds (as with a jiggling weight), rather than an inkprint dial.
Notches may be filed in a weight which has multiple settings.
     To turn meat which is frying, locate each piece by touch and
flip it in the usual manner. If necessary, wad up a piece of paper
toweling as a pad to protect your hand. (Especially at first, you
may need to use your hand to find the piece of meat and/or to keep
it in the right position while you are turning it over with a
spatula.)
     A suggested method for frying chicken is as follows:  Tuck the
ends of each wing together for greater compactness and ease in
handling. Plan your arrangement of the pieces in the skillet so
that you remember where each one is. Arrange the chicken in a
relatively cool skillet (warmed only enough to melt the fat); turn
up the heat appropriately until the meat is ready to turn; then
turn the heat off again while you are turning the pieces. In
turning large pieces, it may be convenient to exchange two of them
with each other.
     Since bacon is so thin and flimsy, a bacon decurler may be
used to make turning unnecessary. This is a perforated metal plate
with a small handle in the middle, available on the general market.
The bacon cooks on both sides simultaneously when this device is
placed on it. Alter the proper time has elapsed, touching the bacon
with a spatula or lifting it up slightly will indicate its
crispness. Scoop out the pieces with the spatula, pushing them
against a paper towel to collect them.
     In frying pancakes, the beginner will probably start with just
one in the middle of the pan; however the experienced cook can fry
several in the same skillet. Ladle in the appropriate amount of
batter for the size of cake desired; for a thinner cake, shake or
tip the skillet slightly. The appropriate time for turning may be
judged by time and by the consistency of the cake as the spatula is
slipped under it.
     In preparing waffles, spread the batter around evenly as you
dip it into the waffle iron. You will know when the waffle is done
by observing such things as the amount of steam escaping, the odor,
and whether the lid comes free easily.
     The beginner frying an egg, and the experienced cook frying
several eggs separately in one pan, may use an egg ring for each
egg. Remove both the top and bottom of a small tuna or pineapple
can, leaving a metal ring about one and one-half inches high and
three inches in diameter. This ring is placed in the pan and the
egg is broken into it. When the egg becomes firm enough to keep its
shape, the ring is removed.
     Time, touch, odor, taste, and/or sound will indicate when a
product is done.

Choice of Cooking Method

     Many people today, sighted and blind, regard the microwave
oven as extremely convenient and "the modern way to cook."
Nevertheless, large numbers of people still prefer conventional
stoves and ovens for many procedures, and/or cannot afford a
microwave oven. Others use the "more traditional" methods when
visiting friends or relatives, volunteering in the church kitchen,
etc. Home economics classes teach various methods of cookery, not
just the use of microwave ovens.
     For all these reasons, the blind person needs to learn all the
common means of cooking and baking. Do not permit the microwave
oven to be the only method because "it is so much easier."


Serving the Food

     Many aids are available for cutting cakes, pies, etc., into
portions. From a restaurant supply house it is possible to buy a
pie-cutting guide featuring slots for the knife. A different type
of pie cutter, consisting of a wire frame with blades, is available
from restaurant supply houses. A hexagonal-shaped pie pan may be
bought on the regular market, and a straightedge may be laid across
between opposite corners to guide the knife. A straightedge may
also be used in a similar manner with any metal pan if notches are
filed at appropriate places along the edges of the pan; cakes,
desserts, and gelatin may be cut evenly in this manner.
     Setting the table usually presents no particular problem. If
you have trouble spacing the place settings evenly, we suggest that
you push each chair up close to the table in its proper place. Then
you can center each place setting in front of the corresponding
chair.
     A tray or cookie sheet helps in serving soup or other liquids.
A filled bowl may be carried on a tray to minimize the problem of
spillage. Alternatively, the bowls may be filled at the table just
before the diners arrive, with the tray being placed under each
bowl in turn as a precaution.
     Many blind hostesses prefer to serve food to their guests from
a cart or sideboard.  If each serving dish is passed around and
then returned to this location, the hostess easily finds out when
a dish becomes empty.
     The popular modern custom of a self-service buffet style meal
is particularly convenient for the blind hostess, as it is for the
sighted. The hostess need only arrange all the necessary items
appropriately, and then replenish empty serving dishes as
necessary.
     The beginner may experience difficulty in pouring from a
coffeepot. We suggest the following: Set the cup near the edge of
the table. Lift the coffeepot completely off the table, and lower
it so that the bottom of the pot is lower than the surface of the
table. Then place the spout so that it touches the lip of the cup
and reaches inside. (With experience, you may or may not come to
prefer some other method.)
     To determine when the cup is full, you may place your finger
over the lip of the cup; estimate the amount of liquid, according
to sound, volume, time, etc.; or use a liquid level indicator.

Cleanup

     Much of the need for cleaning up spots and spills can be
prevented by careful work habits. As mentioned above, a tray is
extremely helpful in catching spills. Unpleasant accidents, such as
dropping a pie or placing one tray of unbaked cookies on top of
another, can usually be prevented by care and thought. For example:
Remove spills from the floor at once before someone slips. Check
the oven shelf to be sure it is clear. Replace lids tightly onto
the proper jars. Put utensils and appliances back into their proper
places, and always turn off appliances rather than merely
unplugging them. Plan ahead in all respects rather than proceeding
haphazardly.  (All of these precautions apply to the sighted as
well; however, the blind person learning new techniques may need to
be reminded.)
     Often the need for cleaning or washing can be felt tactually.
It is important, however, to anticipate dirt which may not be so
readily noticed and to do routine general cleaning such as wiping
off the entire counter after mixing on it. In cleaning a surface
such as the counter or floor, a planned approach is very important:
clean in strips rather than random strokes here and there.
     Dishwashing usually presents no particular problems.
     Cleanliness and neatness should be considered at every stage
of the food preparation procedure. Organize equipment and supplies
beforehand; keep your hands thoroughly clean; plan carefully; clean
up spills when they occur; wash all utensils and wipe off the
entire cooking area afterwards. Double■check after the cleanup is
completed, to be sure nothing was missed.

Conclusion

     A positive attitude is essential to success.
     If you really believe that the blind cook necessarily takes
many safety risks, needs a great deal of special equipment, has
only a limited repertoire, and produces questionable products■then
you will do a poor job. If you really believe that the blind cook
may choose among many good methods to work with all kinds of food
and produce high-quality products■then you will find a way to
succeed.               Sewing Techniques
     A blind person can and should continue to do whatever kind of
sewing he or she did as a sighted person. Many people sew very
little today. Some even arrange to have the laundry or dry cleaner
do mending for them. Others very much enjoy sewing and do a great
deal of it. Whether you are blind or sighted need not affect your
success in sewing or your preference to avoid it. Three or four
tips about sewing will be useful to a newly blinded person.
     A needle threader consisting of a small piece of metal and
wire loop which can be put into the eye of a needle and used to
draw the end of the thread through the needle is very useful for
threading needles, whether you are sewing by hand or with a sewing
machine. If you are tense, it will seem impossible to do this. If
you relax and practice, threading a needle in this way can become
quick and easy. Needle threaders can be ordered from us and can
often be purchased in fabric stores. Self-threading needles are
also available. There is a tiny division at the large end of a
self-threading needle through which the thread can be pulled. If
your fingers are somewhat stiff or numb you may prefer these
needles for sewing by hand.
     When sewing with the machine, you may use the presser foot or
a seam guide to line up the material and keep your seams or
topstitching straight. Two types of machine guides are also
available for sewing machines: a magnetic guide which adheres to
the metal of the machine just to the right of the presser foot or
a metal guide that can be screwed onto the machine table in the
same place. If your machine has the hole or holes for the screw,
this type of guide is much sturdier and more reliable than the
magnet. Some people like to use adhesive tape to mark a 5/8■inch
seam allowance in front of the presser foot. The most reliable
guide is the presser foot itself and it is safe to let your finger
touch the front of it. As long as your finger is not on top of the
presser foot and does not reach in from the side, the needle cannot
hurt you. After a seam is sewn, you can feel the stitching line to
tell how straight it is. Blind sewers, like sighted sewers, will
need to make use of the ripper occasionally.
     If you like to make garments and other items, you will need to
develop a new technique for cutting them out. You will probably
want to get a friend to trim commercial patterns on the cutting
line before you lay them on the fabric. You may wish to make some
special markings of darts or arrows with tape when you have them
trimmed. You can feel the edge of the tissue paper against the
fabric well enough to cut along it quite neatly. You should loop
your hand over the top blade of the scissors so that your thumb is
on one side and your fingers on the other just where the two blades
of the scissors come together when you are cutting. The edge of the
pattern should not cross over the bottom blade of the scissors.
Therefore your fingers should be against the pattern and your thumb
against the fabric (or vice versa) as you cut. You will be able to
feel the pattern edge against the fabric and the scissors best if
your hand is relaxed and you touch it lightly. Of course, you will
hold the scissors in the same hand you always did, using the other
to guide them as described above.
     Sometimes labeling thread for color can be a problem. One
solution to this problem is to obtain pill bottles with large tops
from your local pharmacy and stick Braille labels on them. Braille
labels glued to the spool of thread itself will be pushed off by
the spindle if the spool is put on the machine.
     Sewing is like so many other activities for a blind person.
The question is not whether it can be done. A newly blinded person
needs to ask: How can I do it? not Can I do it? A few relatively
simple techniques will make it possible for a blind person to do
any kind of sewing he or she wishes to do. Practice will make these
techniques simple and commonplace, although they may seem difficult
or frustrating at first.Marking Dials and Tactile Labeling
     Raised markings can be put on dials in a variety of ways and
may be helpful to a blind individual. Dials on the oven, stove
burners, washing machine and dryer, electric mixer, dishwasher,
electric skillet, etcetera may be set more exactly if some special
markings are used. It is possible to take a sharp scratch awl and
make lines on a plastic or metal surface around the outside of the
dial, so that the pointer on the dial can be turned toward these
marks. Small daubs of fingernail polish or glue or a commercial
product called Hi-Marks can also be used. Notches or bumps of one
kind or another can be used to mark almost any dial. It is not
necessary to write words or numbers on the dials as is done in
print. The blind person will decide what setting should be marked,
so he or she will know what they mean. Furthermore, it is not
necessary to have every possible dial setting marked. For example,
it may be desirable to put Braille markings on an oven dial at 275,
350, 425, and broil. With these four settings marked, it is
possible to set the oven dial between them for more accurate
control.
     Many dials may not need special markings. If the dial clicks
as it turns, or if a series of buttons are used for settings (in
the fashion that is common on many blenders), no additional
markings will be needed. In addition, many dials can be set
accurately by a blind person even though there are no special
markings. An example of this would be the dial for a gas stove
burner which can be turned a half or one■quarter turn from off to
high flame. As the dial is gradually turned, the flame gets higher
or lower. Sometimes a blind person can feel printing on a dial.
Even though you cannot read these letters by touch, the roughness
of the print and the spacing between the letters or words may be an
adequate guide for a blind person in setting the dial. Plastic tape
may be used to mark a dial, but other kinds of tape are likely to
pull off or wear out quickly.
     Some appliances and other devices have been marked in Braille
or adapted especially for the blind by the manufacturer. In most
cases, however, you can use whatever you have on hand just as well
as something that has been adapted for use by the blind. For
example, a kitchen timer has been adapted for the blind with raised
dots on it to show how many minutes it is set for. At most hardware
stores, it is possible to purchase for less money kitchen timers
that have raised numerals. These can be felt and the timer can be
set very accurately. If you already have a kitchen timer with print
numerals that are not raised, you can probably still set it
accurately. On a 60■minute timer, when the pointer is straight
down, it is set for 30 minutes; straight to the right is 15
minutes; halfway between 15 and straight up is 7 1/2 minutes. This
timer can be marked with a scratch awl or fingernail polish at 15,
30, and 45 or in some other way. However, many blind people would
be able to use it without any special markings. It is largely a
matter of personal preference. Other examples similar to this could
be given, but the kitchen timer shows why you may not need a
special device for the blind, even if you hear it advertised.
     If a blind person knows some Braille and wishes to make
markings with Braille letters this can be done by using Braille
dymo tape. Braille dymo tape can be used to mark records, canned
goods and other firm surfaces. Canned goods can also be sorted by
location on the shelf, or Braille magnetic labels can be purchased.
Packages of frozen food can be labeled in Braille, the label held
against the package with a rubber band. Plastic Braille labels of
this kind can be reused. Of course, it is adequate for many people
simply to sort frozen items by arranging them in a certain order in
the freezer.
     Generally, clothes do not need special markings. You can
identify shirts, slacks, sweaters, jackets, skirts, dresses,
etcetera, by the feel of the fabric, the style, buttons, and other
features that vary from one garment to the next. Exceptions to this
may be t-shirts or socks. If t-shirts of different colors are
otherwise identical, the simplest means of distinguishing one from
the other is to tear out the tag on one, leaving it in the other.
It would also be possible to sew a small piece of fabric at the
back of the neck. Some blind people prefer to wear primarily one
color of socks, all black, all white, all blue. In many dime stores
it is possible to buy small rings to use when doing the laundry to
keep socks mated together. This makes sorting several colors of
socks simple, since they should not get mixed together. If you have
a slip or undergarment that contrasts with several that are a
different color or shade you may wish to mark it in the same way
you would mark a t-shirt, so you don't inadvertently wear it under
something light-colored or sheer.
     Although it is possible to label almost anything in Braille or
with raised markings, do not let yourself become a slave to such
markings. You may find you really don't need very many.Shopping Ideas
     Blind people use as many different techniques for shopping as
sighted people do, and everyone will use a variety of different
techniques for different occasions. The following is a list of
methods available. None of these methods will always be
satisfactory, but a combination of them will enable a blind person
to get the things he or she needs and wants:
     1. Walk to the store, ask a clerk for assistance in finding
items. This generally works well when only a few items are needed.
If the store is too far away from home to walk, a city bus may be
used. If you go to the same store regularly, you may not always
need assistance in finding items.
     2. Telephone the store with a list of items needed: then go to
the store in a taxicab to pay for the items and bring them home.
Grocery shopping can be done in this way, especially if you know
some of the people at the grocery store and if you ask for this
help when the store is not too busy.
     3. Hire someone to drive you to the store and help you find
the things you need when you get there.
     4. Shop with a friend or neighbor who is doing his or her own
shopping at the same time.
     5. Find a volunteer from church or a civic club who will set
aside an hour or two occasionally to help you shop.
     6. Ask a friend or neighbor to pick up a few items when he or
she is out running errands.
     7. Often large department stores have a shopping service which
can be arranged for in advance. You can go to the store, meet the
■shopper,■ and find the items you need. This is generally used when
you wish to purchase quite a few items at one store in one day.
     8. Find a senior citizens program that sends a van or bus to
a shopping center occasionally, and make use of it.
     9. Order items from a mail■order catalogue by telephone.
     10. Many companies do business primarily at your home. Jewel
T, Amway, Shacklee, Avon, and Fuller Brush send salespeople
door-to-door and deliver. If you like these products and are at
home during the day, this is indeed a convenient way to shop.
Products such as Tupperware and Stanley are purchased at parties,
but can be ordered through the sales representative, as well.
     Many blind persons arrange to shop repeatedly with someone
whose judgment they know and trust, especially for clothing,
furniture, or decorative items. You will probably enjoy shopping or
dislike it as much as you did before you lost your sight. Your
shopping techniques will vary according to your health, travel
methods, preferences, and the occasion.Older Blind and Visually Impaired Persons

     Over half of all blind people in this country are 65 years of
age or older. When blindness or visual loss occurs later in life,
it can be extremely frustrating. But more importantly, assistance
with the necessary adjustment to blindness is often much more
difficult to obtain than it is for younger persons. Every state has
a government■funded rehabilitation program, with many states having
separate agencies for the blind. These programs are mainly
established to help people get back to work. If a person is of
retirement age and is not looking for employment, he or she may not
be eligible to receive services from these programs. Some states
have established independent living programs to provide services to
older blind individuals. Often a newly blinded person does not know
where to go to find out about how to continue functioning as a
blind person. Many people do not know about tools and methods which
exist to make it possible for blind senior citizens to remain in
their own homes and continue to be contributing members of society.

     Here are some of the most frequently asked questions we
receive about older blind persons, along with our answers.

"My mother is going blind. Where should she live?"

     A blind person can live comfortably and safely almost anywhere
he or she chooses to live. Certainly, the same choices about living
quarters should be available to the blind as are available to
sighted individuals.
     In recent years thousands of older citizens have found it
desirable to move into senior citizens' villages, apartment
buildings, mobile home parks, or clusters of houses reserved for
retired people. Some of these include group dining rooms and
recreation facilities, while others have very few special services.
Undoubtedly, some blind people will find arrangements such as these
desirable. Some will not. Blind people should have the opportunity
to live in these senior citizen villages along with everyone else.
Assuming that the blind person does not have health problems that
make nursing home care necessary, elderly blind individuals should
be able to learn alternative skills to care for themselves and live
in whatever type of housing situation they prefer.

"My mother is losing her vision. What is available to her and what
can I do to help her feel useful again?"

     It is not necessary for a blind person to be helpless or
dependent. With proper training, encouragement, and opportunities,
a blind individual can be active, self-sufficient, and productive.
     The most important thing for your mother to do now is to
gather information about how blind people function effectively in
the world. This includes the use of daily living skills and
work-related skills. Most alternative methods that blind
individuals use are very simple, common■sense methods. There is not
much special equipment that is required. You will find many
suggestions and ideas throughout this book.
     Your mother may want to consider learning Braille. She may
find it very helpful. Even while the skills of reading and writing
Braille are being learned, she can make use of Braille in labeling
canned goods and medicines. While she doesn't need to have labels
on everything, she will enjoy the ease of life around the house as
she is able to know what spices are on the rack, what kinds of
soups are on the shelf, etc. She will also be able to note phone
numbers and addresses without difficulty.
     The place to start in looking for activities that will help
your mother feel useful and productive is with the things that she
has enjoyed all of her life. Just because a person loses vision
doesn't mean that she can no longer do the things that have
interested her. There are a few simple techniques and devices that
can allow people to continue doing most things.
     If your mother enjoys sewing, there are needle threaders and
self-threading needles which make this possible. Sewing techniques
useful to blind persons are discussed elsewhere in this book. We
know blind people who knit, crochet, make latch-hook rugs, or make
their own clothes.
     If your mother enjoys knitting, crocheting, crafts, or
macrame, she can still do these things. It is just a matter of
learning to perform certain tasks by touch rather than by sight.
Encourage your mother to experiment with things she has always
enjoyed doing. Another easily learned craft is making latch-hook
rugs. If you purchase rugs that have large areas of the same color,
and if you can work with her some on marking points where colors
change, latch-hook can be very enjoyable.
     If gardening is something that holds an interest for her,
there is no reason why she can't continue to garden. There are ways
to perform all the gardening tasks by touch rather than by sight.
     If your mother was active in church groups or clubs, there are
still many things she can do to contribute. We realize that
transportation may be a problem. However, there may be someone who
could offer her a ride to some of the activities in exchange for
help with the gasoline purchase. Often, there is a real need for
people to do telephone calling from their homes for church
activities.
     The most important element in getting started on some of these
things after a person loses vision is believing that it can be
done. Learning to do things in a different way can initially be
frustrating, but if you already have the skill, it does not take
long to learn to do things by touch. Please encourage your mother
to try some of these things.
     Throughout the country there are libraries that lend to blind
individuals books and magazines that have been recorded on records
or tapes, as well as Braille materials. The libraries also provide
record players (talking book machines) and specially adapted
cassette players without charge. Any person who is unable to read
standard print is eligible to borrow these materials. The materials
can be sent through the mail to and from the library free of
charge, so this service does not cost the blind borrower anything.
The service is provided by state and federal funds. Library
services are available upon application from the library for the
blind in your state. Most of these libraries are part of the
network of the National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped of the Library of Congress.
     We have found that one of the most useful things for newly
blind people is to meet and interact with other competent blind
individuals. We can get your mother in touch with the local chapter
of the National Federation of the Blind nearest her.
     It is very important that you encourage your mother to be
active and to do as many things for herself as she can.

"Can an older blind person learn Braille?"

     Whether or not a blind person at an advanced age would benefit
from learning Braille depends upon many factors. If the individual
is mentally alert, has a reasonably good memory, and is able to
feel and distinguish the dots, it may be beneficial for him or her
to learn Braille. The older blind person may want to learn enough
Braille to put labels on things or to write down telephone numbers.
Numbers in Braille are the same as the first ten letters of the
alphabet with a number symbol placed before the letter. If you know
the numbers and a few other letters, it is possible to use Braille
playing cards.

"Are there any games that are adapted for the blind?"

     Many games do not require adaptations. The use of a reader may
be the only change that is required with others. You can obtain
sets of checkers, chess, monopoly, cribbage, scrabble, and other
games that have been adapted for use by the blind. In the case of
checkers and chess, it is not necessary to know any Braille at all
in order to use the adapted sets. The pieces are shaped differently
so that one color can be distinguished from the other. The boards
are adapted so that the pieces are not easily pushed out of place
when the blind person uses his or her hands to find the location of
the various pieces.

"Can you recommend a nursing home for my father who is blind?"

     Any good nursing home can accommodate blind people adequately.
It is essential for people to understand that just because a senior
citizen becomes blind, that does NOT mean that nursing home care is
necessary. Assuming that the blind person does not have health
problems that make nursing home care necessary, elderly blind
individuals should be able to learn methods to care for themselves
and live in whatever type of housing situation they prefer.

"My sister is blind and has other health problems that make nursing
home care necessary. What should I look for to make sure she gets
the care she needs?"

     Blindness, in and of itself, is not a sickness. Most people
who are blind do not live in nursing homes. However, some people
who need nursing home care for other reasons happen to be blind.
     Here are a few things to consider in choosing a nursing home
suitable for a person who is blind:
     Are there other blind people living in the home? What do they
do all day?
     Do they have talking books? If not, they may receive them
without cost from the National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped of the Library of Congress.
     Are blind residents encouraged to travel independently around
the home? Will staff members show new residents where to find the
dining room, or is it automatically assumed that blind people must
be taken everywhere they wish to go?
     Do blind residents participate in the regular activities of
the home? They should.
     Are residents who want to learn Braille encouraged to do so?
Do staff members speak to patients upon entering or leaving a room?
     Do staff move the personal belongings of residents without
notifying them or asking their permission?
     Are blind residents who used to enjoy needlework encouraged to
continue with this hobby and shown ways to do needlework as a blind
person? Knitting, crocheting, weaving, and other such skills are
truly ■handwork■ and do not require sight.
     Are large print or Braille bingo cards, playing cards, and
scrabble sets available?
     Does the home have good lighting? Can people have high
intensity lamps with low glare in their rooms? Are public areas
well lit? Is attention paid to reducing glare?
     Are blind people in wheelchairs routinely told about their
surroundings if they are being pushed from one place to another?

     It is sometimes hard, particularly if a person has a severe
hearing loss, to tell very much about surroundings while sitting in
a wheelchair. This purpose can be accomplished in the course of a
general conversation.
     Ask the director of nursing if there has been a staff training
session on blindness recently. If there has not, we can probably
find a local blind person who would be glad to offer staff
training.

"I am over 65, and I am legally blind. Am I eligible for any
financial or medical assistance other than Social Security and
Medicare?"

     If you are 65 or older, you will not receive any additional
money from Social Security just because you are blind. If you are
under age 65, it is very important for the Social Security Office
to know that you are blind. If you are eligible for Social Security
Disability Insurance, you may continue to receive disability
benefits (which may be higher) until you are age 65, at which time
your payments will convert to Social Security based on the fact
that you have attained age 65.
     Medicare pays hospital and doctor expenses under certain rules
and limitations, but if your income is very low and/or you have
some large medical bills, you may be eligible for some other
medical assistance through your state or local programs.
     Depending on your financial circumstances, it may be possible
to qualify for medical assistance through your State Department of
Social Services. Most states also have what is called a "spend down
program." If you are found eligible for this, you will pay a set
amount of medical expenses for a six-month period of time, and the
Department of Social Services will pay anything above this amount.
Please check with your State Department of Social Services for
further details.
     There are university hospitals in most states which are
teaching hospitals for medical students. They are often able to
provide medical services at a reduced rate. Other hospitals which
have been constructed with federal funds are sometimes required, at
least for a number of years, to provide  some assistance to
low■income individuals. Please check with hospitals in your area
for this type of program.
     If you are a Medicare recipient, there are some doctors who
will accept for payment the amount that Medicare will pay. Many
hospitals have doctor referral services and can tell you which
doctors will accept Medicare patients.
     If you are 65 or older, a U.S. citizen or legal resident, and
you do not have access to an ophthalmologist that you have seen in
the past, you may be eligible for the National Eye Care Project. If
you think you may be eligible, call (800) 222-EYES (3937). Callers
who meet the eligibility requirements are mailed the name of a
participating ophthalmologist near their home. Participating
doctors provide medical eye exams and treatment for conditions or
diseases if necessary. Qualified callers will receive treatment at
no out-of-pocket expense for the doctor's services. Eyeglasses,
prescriptions, hospital services, and other medical services are
not covered under the program. Doctors accept insurance assignment
as payment in full.
     It is the responsibility of the agency on aging in your state
to act as a referral agency for older citizens. There is also a
state rehabilitation agency for the blind in your state which
should be able to give you information. There may be other state or
local services for which you may be eligible.
     The most important thing for you to remember is that you have
a lifetime of experience to offer your family, friends, and the
rest of the world. Just because you have lost your vision, does not
mean that you don't still have a lot to offer to other people. Some
new techniques, such as the ones discussed elsewhere in this book,
are required. Learning to read and write Braille takes time and
motivation. Using records and tapes instead of reading with your
eyes takes some getting used to. Finding and learning to work with
readers is a skill to be developed. Budgeting money to pay readers
or finding volunteers is a new approach. Using public
transportation and arranging for drivers are also changes. These
new activities are skills that require new attitudes. You must come
to understand that everyone has needs and that those of the blind
are not necessarily greater than those of others. All people must
find ways of giving to others, as well as getting others to help
them. You probably will not feel OK about blindness until you
realize that you still have a lot to offer to others. It is easy to
become overwhelmed by your own needs and forget that the greatest
need of all is to continue giving.
     Do you knit or crochet for your grandchildren? Do you tell
entertaining stories? Do you bake good cookies? Do you make quilts
or wooden toys? Do you teach Bible study lessons? Do you take
flowers to friends who are ill? Some of these things may seem
unlikely for a blind person, but they aren't. We know many blind
people who do all of these things and more. Believing that it is
possible is the first step. The next step is using imagination,
initiative, and persistence. When you need encouragement or
support, be sure to contact other, more experienced, blind people.
They will undoubtedly be happy to talk to you.Common Eye Conditions and Causes of Blindness in the United States

(The material in this article was produced in collaboration with
Daniel Finkelstein, M.D., Associate Professor of Ophthalmology, The
Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
Maryland.)

     This article includes information on only the most commonly
encountered eye conditions, and it reduces a great deal of medical
and technical detail to language understandable to the lay
inquirer. Many medical facts have, in the interest of clarity and
brevity, been simplified; therefore, this text is not in any way
intended as a basis for self-diagnosis or lay diagnosis of anyone's
eye condition, a job which belongs to the eye doctor. If you are
wondering whether anything is wrong with your eyes, we urge you to
see an eye doctor at once. If you cannot afford to pay, there are
many agencies and funds which can help you.
     Some of the conditions described below are hereditary (passed
on from one generation to another through genes and chromosomes),
but there are many patterns of heredity, even for a single
disorder. Specific questions about the inheritance of a particular
characteristic in an individual or family should be directed to a
genetic specialist. A family physician can usually provide the
proper referral.
     Following are descriptions of the specific eye conditions
about which we receive the most frequent questions.  A longer list
is treated in our free publication Blindness and Disorders of the
Eye. Generally we have not attempted to rank causes by percentages
or numbers of cases since such statistics are constantly changing,
and the analysis of them is a complex matter.

Albinism

     Albinism is a hereditary condition in which there is a lack of
normal pigment in part or all of the body. The hair is white, the
skin very fair, and the iris of the eye white or pinkish. The
person with albinism usually has poor vision, an imperfectly
developed retina, oversensitivity to light, and nystagmus (abnormal
muscle movement causing constant twitching or jerking of the eyes).
     Specially treated lenses can improve vision and can also
lessen discomfort by reducing the amount of light entering the eye.
There is no cure for albinism.

Amblyopia

     The general term amblyopia applies to poor vision which is not
due to any observable disease and which cannot be corrected by
glasses. It may be congenital (present at birth) or may develop
later.
     Sometimes the cause is unknown; however, blindness can often
be prevented if proper steps are taken. A common example is ■lazy
eye■ or amblyopia ex anopsia, affecting perhaps one to two percent
of children. This condition occurs in a young child if one eye
becomes so dominant that the other is suppressed and deteriorates
through lack of use. This is likely to happen if the two eyes focus
differently because of strabismus (see below) or because one eye is
much more nearsighted than the other. One eye may fall into disuse
as the person relies on images from the other. However, the eye may
appear perfectly normal to others. If this problem is discovered
and treated early enough (generally before the age of six or
seven), often the unused, weak eye will regain its strength.
Otherwise permanent loss of vision may result. Many service
organizations provide free preschool screening tests in an effort
to find and refer these children before the vision of one eye is
completely lost. Treatment generally consists of correcting the
basic inequality of the eyes through surgery or corrective lenses
and/or putting a patch over the strong eye temporarily to force the
weak one to work again. Eye examinations at birth and again by
three years of age are recommended to increase chances of early
detection and effective treatment.

Cataracts

     The lens of the human eye is comparable to the lens of a
camera or magnifying glass, and for obvious reasons it needs to be
transparent and free of flaws. The development of what are called
cataracts, or opacities and clouding of the eye's lens, blocks the
passage of light through the eye.
     Various forms of cataract make up one of the leading causes of
blindness in this country today. Although some cataracts are
congenital (present at birth), likelihood of developing them
increases with age. Chemical changes in the lens and diabetes have
also been associated with development of cataracts, and chemical
burns and heredity may cause them. All of the causes, however, are
not known. Like the majority of eye conditions, they are not
contagious.
     Cataracts are not painful. In fact the only symptom as far as
the patient is concerned is from very slight to virtually total
interference with vision. Cataracts may be manifested in dimmed,
blurred, or double vision or a need for frequent changes of
glasses.  Typically a person with cataracts experiences difficulty
in satisfactorily adjusting light for activities like reading while
at the same time having to avoid glare. Driving at night may for
this reason become very difficult. Not all cataracts require
surgery, some being small enough that they do not seriously affect
vision. For those large enough to cause visual problems, medication
does not help; and the only effective treatment is surgery to
remove the affected lens, implantation of an intraocular lens,  and
the subsequent wearing of conventional eyeglasses or strong contact
lenses.
     Much progress has been made recently in the development of
improved forms of cataract surgery, including use of freezing
probes and ultrasonic (not to be confused with laser) devices which
make possible removal of the lens through a small opening in a
process called phacoemulsification. The decision about whether and
when to operate is dependent on factors such as the patient's age
and occupation. The likelihood of regaining useful sight is
generally good, with some estimates placing it as high as 95%,
although complications may prevent successful treatment in some
cases. It is no longer necessary to wait for cataracts to ■ripen■
before operating, and convalescence from the surgery is faster and
safer than ever before.

Color Blindness

     This familiar condition is predominant in males (in about 8%
as opposed to around 0.5% of females) and most commonly is a
sex-linked inherited characteristic transmitted through the male
chromosome, although it may also result from poisoning or retinal
disease. Generally affecting both eyes, it most often takes the
form of a loss of perception of one or two fundamental colors
(red-green color blindness is the most common congenital variety),
but occasionally it is complete, so that the individual literally
sees only in black and white.
     The exact mechanism of color blindness has not been fully
explained, but some writers simply attribute it to an absence of
one or more of the cone pigments or an abnormal presence of a
mixture of two of the color-sensitive pigments in one cone. In any
event, use of various charts to test for color blindness is
commonly included as part of an eye examination, especially for
drivers and workers in industry and transportation, where the
ability to distinguish colored signals is important. One of the
most familiar tests consists of a circle containing dots of
different colors, in which the subject with normal color vision is
supposed to discern one number, while a person with defective color
vision is likely to see another.
     Some have found the pattern of inheritance for this recessive
characteristic confusing. To put the matter simply, a female will
usually not be color-blind herself unless there is an abnormal gene
for color blindness on both of the X chromosomes carried by all
females. On the other hand a male, who carries only one X
chromosome, will be color-blind if it contains an abnormal gene.
Moreover, the female with only one abnormal gene inherited from her
father can become a "carrier" and pass the trait on to a male
offspring without being color-blind herself.
     There is no treatment for color blindness, and it cannot be
overcome through any type of eye exercises.

Congenital Eye Defects

     The term congenital means "present at birth"; hence, this term
includes some or all cases of many conditions listed under other
headings in this publication. Some congenital eye conditions like
retinoblastoma are truly hereditary (passed on through the genes
and chromosomes), while others are the result of a disease or
deficiency during pregnancy■for instance, German measles (rubella).
     Often the exact cause of a congenital defect is unknown.
Following are examples of conditions which may be seen at birth as
a developmental deficiency of unknown cause:
     aniridia■absence or near absence of the iris
     microphthalmos■an abnormally small eye, usually with poor
vision
     megalophthalmos■an abnormally large eye present at birth
     anophthalmos■absence of the eyeball (an artificial eye can
usually be worn, and the eyelids are usually present.)
     coloboma■a cleft or slot in the iris and/or retina, as a
result of incomplete growth.

Corneal Disease and Corneal Transplants

     The cornea, a transparent layer over the front of the eye,
functions as a refracting and protective "window" membrane through
which light rays pass on the way to the retina. While there are no
blood vessels in the cornea, there are many pain fibers, so that
most injuries do cause severe pain. In addition, blurred vision
results from injury to or disorder within the cornea. Problems in
this area, resulting as they can in permanently blurred vision or
blindness, are extremely serious and should receive immediate
attention from an eye specialist.
     Corneal ulcers■Scarring or perforation due to corneal
ulceration is a major cause of blindness throughout the world.
Usually such ulcers can be treated if attended to quickly.
Ulceration may be caused by bacteria such as streptococcus, viruses
(herpes simplex keratitis being one of the most common), fungi,
vitamin A deficiency, or other disorders. New drugs have aided the
treatment of many of these conditions.
     Degenerative corneal conditions■Keratoconus, a rare
degenerative condition which is inherited, causes a general
thinning and an abnormal protrusion of the central cornea, as well
as some scarring. Blurred vision results, and in advanced cases
there may even be perforation of the cornea. While contact lenses
(especially the new soft types) can aid vision in the early stages,
corneal transplants are sometimes performed before extreme thinning
takes place, and in such cases reading vision can usually be
obtained.
     Other degenerative conditions include corneal dystrophy and
arcus senilis, an extremely common condition in elderly people.
     Other types of corneal disorders may be indicated by pain,
irritation, or blurred vision; however, some corneal ailments can
be detected only by a trained eye specialist.
     Corneal Transplant (Keratoplasty)■When the cornea becomes
scarred, hazy, or opaque or when there is danger of perforation of
a corneal ulcer, an ophthalmic surgeon may remove the affected
cornea and replace it with a healthy one taken from a donor. In
many states it is easy for one to donate eyes for this purpose at
death. Only the cornea is used in such cases. There is no immediate
prospect of successful whole eye transplants. Surgeons would prefer
to use the donated cornea immediately, but it may be used within
sixty to seventy hours after death if handled properly. New
techniques for this procedure involving surgery under a microscope
and use of finer suture material have constituted a major advance
in treatment of corneal disorders.  Ordinarily using a knife called
the trephine, which functions rather like a cookie cutter, the
surgeon performs what is called a "penetrating keratoplasty." The
defective cornea is cut with the knife and lifted out. A matching
piece of the donor cornea is cut with the same knife , used to
replace the excised piece of the defective cornea , and held in
place by very fine sutures.  The convalescence from this surgery is
relatively brief and uncomplicated these days. Best vision returns
when the sutures are removed about one year after surgery. Chances
of rejection of the new cornea are rated by most authorities at
from one to five percent.

Diabetic Retinopathy

     This eye condition, a very common complication of diabetes,
rivals glaucoma and cataracts as a leading cause of blindness in
this country. Its incidence is rising as a result of the increased
lifespan of diabetics, which has been made possible by improved
medical technology and particularly by the synthesis of insulin in
the early years of the twentieth century. The likelihood of
retinopathy increases with the length of time a given person has
had diabetes, so that many who have been diabetics for twenty or
more years do become blind.
     Long-term diabetes often brings about changes in the tiny
blood vessels in the retina (the lining of the back of the eye).
There are two forms of diabetic retinopathy. The milder form,
background or nonproliferative, is the more common. It involves
development of microaneurisms in retinal capillary blood vessels,
which usually do not cause serious vision loss.
     A relatively small number of diabetics develop the more
severe, or proliferative, form of retinopathy, which can cause
blindness. With its onset new, abnormal blood vessels may be
formed; blood vessels may become engorged with too much blood and
burst, or the retina may break loose from the back of the eye. In
addition to the direct interference with vision caused by these
events, blood from the burst vessels enters the vitreous
(jelly-like) part of the eye and makes it cloudy instead of
transparent.
     Modern medical treatment administered as early as possible in
the course of the disorder can often slow the course of diabetic
retinopathy. Laser treatments sometimes can seal or ■weld■ broken
blood vessels or seal a detached portion of the retina back into
place. Photocoagulation treatment consists of scattering hundreds
of small, quick flashes of intense laser light across the retina in
order to seal or dry up new blood vessels. It must, however, be
undertaken before there is bleeding into the vitreous or detachment
of the retina. Although in many cases these kinds of treatment are
wholly or partially unsuccessful, the techniques are continually
being refined.
     Medical science does not yet fully understand just what
characteristics of diabetes bring about retinopathy. Although good
adherence to a diet, regular administration of insulin, and other
prescribed regimens will improve the patient's general health and
help to lower the likelihood of complications in general, the most
careful and conscientious patient may still become blind. On the
other hand, some people have severe diabetes for many years and
never develop eye problems.

German Measles (Rubella)

     Many readers may be surprised to find that German measles is
associated with blindness since it is commonly thought of as a very
minor disease. Neither child nor adult is likely to be harmed
permanently by a case of German measles, but an unborn baby may be
very much affected. If an expectant mother has the disease during
the first three months of pregnancy, she herself will probably
hardly feel sick at all, but the disease is likely to infect her
unborn child through the placenta, with serious results.
     Many of these babies are born mentally retarded, and they also
are likely to have physical problems. Heart disease, hearing
disorders, and respiratory difficulties are particularly common.
Many rubella children have cataracts or other eye problems like
glaucoma, abnormally small eyes, or defects in the iris or retina.
     A number of preventive efforts  have been made to minimize
this threat to the unborn. Children■especially girls■should be
exposed to the disease or vaccinated if possible so that they may
have mild symptoms and develop resistance to German measles for the
future. Women who might be in the early stages of pregnancy should
avoid contact with cases of German measles.

Glaucoma

     Glaucoma is another of the leading causes of blindness in the
United States, perhaps accounting for one in every seven or eight
cases. In this condition, the transparent fluid inside the forward
part of the eye does not drain normally, and excess pressure is
built up within the eye. If the pressure is not controlled, the
delicate structure of the eye is increasingly damaged, resulting in
blurred vision, a narrowed field of sight, and eventually total
blindness. Symptoms may include intermittent blurred vision,
nausea, inability to adjust eyes to darkened rooms, seeing colored
halos around lights, and reduced side vision.
     The causes of glaucoma are not fully understood. Some cases
are hereditary, while others arise as complications of other eye
disorders. Glaucoma, not a contagious condition, is most common
after the age of thirty-five.
     The acute type of glaucoma appears as a sudden attack,
characterized by great pain and discomfort as the eye pressure
rises quickly from blockage of drainage canals. Such an episode can
damage the eyes severely in a short time. More common, however, is
the chronic type (affecting perhaps 2.5 million Americans), in
which there is no pain and in which the damage to vision is so slow
that it may not be noticed by the patient for a long time. The
intraocular pressure rises because the drainage canals are blocked
and the fluid cannot drain properly.
     Many cases are controlled by medication which relaxes and
unblocks the drainage channels for the eye fluid. Sometimes surgery
is necessary. In many cases, although not all, modern medical
treatment can control the disease completely. As with other eye
conditions, early detection and treatment to stop the progress of
the disorder are important. Many sources recommend an eye
examination every two or three years, especially for those over
thirty-five. Developments such as optic disk topography mapping,
the laser scanning ophthalmoscope, and color perimetry may assist
in early detection and treatment of this disorder.

Injury (Trauma) and Burns

     In an era when cures for disease are constantly being
developed, injury remains a prominent cause of disability, and eye
injuries are no exception. Preventable accidents injure the eyes of
approximately 500,000 Americans each year.
     Adequate protective eye guards (not just any goggles or
eyeglasses) should always be worn during welding, in factories and
laboratories, and in any other situation where the danger of burns
or other injury exists. Children must be effectively taught not to
point arrows, BB guns, or other sharp or dangerous objects toward
the face. Farmers using anhydrous ammonia or other chemicals must
observe suitable safety precautions since chemical burns are an
important cause of injury on farms.
     Everyone should know the basic principles of emergency first
aid in case an injury does occur. In case of a chemical burn, the
eyes should immediately be rinsed thoroughly with water for at
least fifteen minutes, and emergency medical care should be secured
at once. For other injuries, it is generally best to leave the eye
alone or if necessary to cover it with a loose bandage while
securing emergency medical care. Hyphema, a hemorrhaging into the
anterior chamber, is a sign of serious injury. In such a case blood
will be visible through the cornea, and a doctor's help should be
sought at once.
     In addition to direct damage due to the injury itself, the
danger of infection is always present and may be even more serious.
Moreover, injury to a single eye may result in pathologic symptoms
in the other, a condition called sympathetic ophthalmia, which in
the past often meant that total blindness ultimately resulted from
injury to a single eye. Although the exact cause of sympathetic
ophthalmia is not fully understood, it can usually be prevented
today by prompt medical care.
     We do not have the power to foresee and prevent all injuries.
With proper precautions, however, a great many accidents can be
prevented, and the effects of those which do occur can be
minimized.

Macular Degeneration

     As the inner surface or lining at the back of the eye, the
retina serves a function similar to that of the film in a camera.
The macula (the proverbial "apple" of the eye) is the part of the
retina which forms the center of the "picture" and the sharpest
image.
     Degeneration or breakdown of the macula may come from many
causes. Some cases are hereditary, and others are caused by
diseases such as arteriosclerosis. The course of the deterioration
may be slow or rapid; however, the patient generally keeps good
peripheral vision■that is, he can still see well around the edges
of his visual field, although his central vision is blurred.
     The most common form of this condition occurs in the elderly.
In severe form this is called "age-related macular degeneration"
(AMD), which occurs mostly in people over fifty years old. While a
person with macular degeneration may retain substantial peripheral
vision, the ability to read, sew, or drive may be seriously
impaired. Magnifiers may help, and a small percentage of cases of
a rare form of AMD may be candidates for laser treatment to seal
off blood vessels which have grown beneath the retina or to repair
the macula's weak spots by removing worn-out tissue and allowing
new tissue growth.

Myopia (Nearsightedness)

     Myopia results when the eyeball is longer than normal or when
there is some change in the eyeball which causes the light rays to
be bent abnormally. In either case when a distant object is
observed, the parallel light rays passing through the lens into the
eye tend to be focused in front of the retina rather than on it,
and the result is a fuzzy image. Rays coming from nearby objects
are more easily brought into focus, and thus the person is
described as "nearsighted."
     Most nearsighted people  need only wear properly prescribed
corrective lenses in order to see normally. These people are said
to have simple myopia, which hardly ever causes blindness. A much
less common condition, generally hereditary, is degenerative (or
progressive) myopia. Persons with this condition may not see well
even with glasses. Complications such as retinal detachment,
cataracts, or secondary glaucoma may appear with degenerative
myopia.

Nystagmus

     Continuous jerky, involuntary movements of the eye muscles are
called nystagmus. These oscillations may be in any or all
directions, but are usually more pronounced in some directions than
others and are usually fairly consistent in a particular
individual. Sometimes dizziness is associated with nystagmus. The
person with nystagmus has reduced visual acuity from being unable
to maintain steady fixation on objects.
     The exact cause of nystagmus is not fully understood, but it
seems to be associated with poor vision in a kind of "vicious
cycle"■that is, nystagmus makes it more difficult to see, while at
the same time poor vision increases the likelihood of nystagmus.
Usually this disorder cannot be cured. The individual may find he
or she is more comfortable and sees better if the head is tilted or
moved slightly to compensate for the involuntary movements, and
often this will be done unconsciously.

Ophthalmia Neonatorum

     The well-chosen name of this disease  means "inflammation in
the eyes of the newborn." Once a dreaded and very common cause of
blindness, it is now preventable by means of modern hygiene and
medical care.
     Ophthalmia neonatorum appears soon after birth, but it is not
hereditary. It is caused by the entrance of bacteria from the
mother's birth canal into the baby's eyes. Inflammation appears in
the eyelids and cornea and may spread further if not treated.
Often the bacteria are those of gonorrhea, but other bacteria (such
as staphylococcus) may be the cause as well.
     A successful treatment to prevent the development of this
disease was discovered in 1880, and this treatment or its
equivalent is now required by law. The eyelids of every newborn
baby are cleansed, and drops of a silver nitrate solution
(sometimes penicillin and other antibiotics) are put into the eyes.
Effort is also directed, of course, to promoting good health on the
part of the expectant mother so that she will not transmit harmful
germs to her baby.

Optic Nerve Atrophy and Optic Nerve Hypoplasia

     These two conditions of the optic nerve have become a special
concern of those who work with young children. In optic nerve
atrophy the problem is damage to or degeneration of the optic
nerve. Generally it results from a condition occurring after birth,
but it can also be hereditary. Frequently, it results from pressure
against the optic nerve and resultant loss of blood supply to it,
for example from hydrocephaly or tumors. Without blood the nerve
cells die from lack of nourishment.
     In optic nerve hydroplasia there is a congenital deficiency of
optic nerve fibers, which may exist independently or in association
with other disabilities or defects. There is some evidence to
suggest that this disorder is related to alcohol or drug use by
mothers during their pregnancies, but in many cases the cause is
unknown.

Retinal Breaks and Detachment

     Sometimes as part of the aging process, sometimes through
inheritance of a predisposition toward them, and sometimes from
other causes, people may develop breaks in the retina which often
lead ultimately to detachment of the various layers of the retina
from each other. As with other eye conditions, early detection and
treatment of these problems can help prevent blindness.
     Sometimes there are not dramatic symptoms associated with
breaks in the retina; however, such symptoms as "floaters,"
haziness or smokiness, or light flashes in the eye may indicate
retinal problems. An immediate examination by an eye doctor is
recommended.
     Treatment for retinal breaks involves use of cryotherapy or
lasers. In the former, a freezing probe is applied to the surface
of the eye over the point of the retinal break. Only the area
around the break is frozen, prompting the growth of scar tissue and
reattachment of the separated retinal layers at the edges of the
break. Lasers are used to burn tissue selectively so as to reattach
the separated retinal layers in a process similar to welding.

Retinitis Pigmentosa

     This condition is characterized by degeneration of the retina
and the choroid, usually involving an abnormal development of
excess pigment. It is hereditary, with a variety of patterns of
inheritance and development.
     The most common pattern of development is as follows: At
approximately age ten or twelve, the youngster begins to experience
some difficulty in seeing at night and in poorly lighted areas. His
visual field also begins to narrow, although he may not realize
this at first. The visual loss is progressive, so that the
individual usually becomes legally blind by young adulthood and
slowly loses more and more vision thereafter. Many adults with
retinitis pigmentosa have a very tiny field of vision in which they
see well under a good light but which is so small as to be of
little use. Total blindness often results. There may or may not be
additional problems, such as cataracts. There is no known
treatment.

Retinopathy of Prematurity

     Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), which sometimes advances to
a condition known as retrolental fibroplasia (RLF), was thought for
a long time to be caused by exposing a newborn (frequently
premature) baby to a high concentration of oxygen in an incubator,
but there is now less agreement and certainty about the cause. In
any case, an abnormal proliferation of blood vessels in the eye
occurs, and there may be subsequent development of scar tissue ,
with bleeding and detachment of the retina. Total blindness may
result. Glaucoma, uveitis, cataract, and degenerative lesions of
the eye may occur months to years after onset of the RLF stage.
Strabismus and myopia are commonly associated with cases in which
the blood vessels partially heal.  In the large majority of ROP
cases (about 80%) abnormal blood vessels heal completely in the
first year of life. In other cases scars from incompletely healed
ROP result in either mild or severe RLF. In the most severe cases
(about 5%) retinal detachment results from formation of scar tissue
and the resultant pulling loose of the retina from the normal
position in the back of the eye. Recently cryotherapy (freezing
part of the retina while it is immature) has drawn some interest as
a possible treatment for ROP and is currently under study. The
history of ROP/RLF has affected the education of blind children in
the United States. Because of the surge of RLF cases in the 1950's,
large numbers of blind children reached school age at a time when
social sentiment began increasingly to favor the ■mainstream■
placement of children with disabilities in the regular classroom.
The parents of many RLF children worked successfully to arrange for
education in the regular public schools, a trend which continues
today.

Strabismus

     Commonly called "crossed eyes" when the eyes turn in and "wall
eyes" when they turn out, this condition is frequently due to
muscle inequality. It can also result from trauma at birth,
hereditary factors, or other disorders. It must be treated■ usually
with corrective glasses, medication, surgery, patching of one eye,
orthoptic exercises, or some combination of these.

Trachoma

     Trachoma is a contagious disease, caused by a virus, which
affects the eyelids and the cornea. Though still common in many
less developed countries, it has become rare in the United States.
It can be prevented through modern sanitation and medical care. The
exact pattern of development varies with the individual, but the
following symptoms are typical: The eye becomes painful, with
burning sensations and oversensitivity to light. Vision is
disturbed (or in some advanced cases destroyed) as the cornea
becomes more and more opaque. An excess of tears is produced, and
often an additional discharge. The eyelids develop muscle spasms;
and the eyelashes may be turned inward, further irritating the
cornea. In its early stages a case of trachoma can usually be cured
by administration of suitable drugs and improved cleanliness and
general health. Surgery is helpful in some cases. However, if the
case is far advanced or if complications have set in, successful
treatment may be impossible. The best way to control this disorder
is of course through prevention.

Tumors

     Not all tumors and growths are cancer. A "benign" or
"nonmalignant" tumor is not much different from the surrounding
tissue. It stops growing after it reaches a certain size and does
not spread to other areas of the body. Some benign tumors in or
near the eye cause no trouble at all. Others, however, do interfere
with sight or cause pain. Such a tumor may be removed surgically,
and in many cases the eye recovers to become completely normal. A
cancerous tumor is much more threatening than a benign tumor. It is
greatly different from surrounding tissue, grows rapidly without
stopping, and often spreads through the lymph system to sprout
growths in other parts of the body. There are many different kinds
of cancers which may appear in or around the eye. The most common
is melanoma, a malignant spot of color. (Note: Some benign tumors
are also called "melanomas.") Retinoblastoma is a cancer of the
retina. Usually hereditary, it appears in very young children and
is believed to be present at birth in an incipient stage. If any
history of this disease is known in a family, it is vital that each
baby be examined frequently by an ophthalmologist. The eye
specialist can detect the cancer before it is visible to the layman
and before it causes any discomfort to the child. If the condition
is untreated, the cancer will spread to the brain and elsewhere,
causing death. Successful treatment of a tumor is always much more
likely if it is begun early. Radiation, drugs, and/or surgery may
be used, but frequently complete removal of the eye and any other
affected tissue may be necessary.

Usher's Syndrome

     An inherited disorder present at birth or early in life,
Usher's Syndrome involves hearing loss and a progressive loss of
vision caused by retinitis pigmentosa (discussed above). The
hearing loss associated with this disorder, which may be from mild
to profound, usually does not progress. The retinitis pigmentosa,
however, follows the usual pattern of progressive loss■first of
night vision and gradually of peripheral vision. The incidence of
Usher's Syndrome is estimated by the RP Foundation at about 1 in
15,000 to 30,000 births. There is no treatment for this disorder,
but there has been some benefit from cochlear implants for those
with severe hearing loss.

Uveitis

     Inflammation of the uvea, the middle layer of the eye between
the sclera and the retina, is called uveitis. Symptoms include
light sensitivity, blurring of vision, pain, and redness of the
eye. This condition can affect other parts of the eye■cornea,
retina, sclera, for example■and may be serious enough to lead to
loss of vision. It may come on slowly with little pain but with
blurring of vision, or it may appear suddenly, accompanied by pain
and redness of the eye.WHO ARE THE BLIND WHO LEAD THE BLIND

     The National Federation of the Blind has become by far the
most significant force in the affairs of the blind today, and its
actions have had an impact on many other groups and programs. The
Federation's President, Marc Maurer, radiates confidence and
persuasiveness. He says, "If I can find twenty people who care
about a thing, then we can get it done. And if there are two
hundred, two thousand, or twenty thousand■well, that's even
better." The National Federation of the Blind is a civil rights
movement with all that the term implies.
     President Maurer says, "You can't expect to obtain freedom by
having somebody else hand it to you. You have to do the job
yourself. The French could not have won the American Revolution for
us. That would merely have shifted the governing authority from one
colonial power to another. So, too, we the blind are the only ones
who can win freedom for the blind, which is both frightening and
reassuring. If we don't get out and do what we must, there is no
one to blame but ourselves. We have control of the essential
elements."
     Although there are in the United States at the present time
many organizations and agencies for the blind, there is only one
National Federation of the blind. This organization was established
in 1940 when the blind of seven states■Minnesota, Wisconsin,
Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Missouri, and California■sent
delegates to its first convention at Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania.
Since that time progress has been rapid and steady. The Federation
is recognized by blind men and women throughout the entire country
as their primary means of joint expression; and today■with active
affiliates in every state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto
Rico■it is the primary voice of the nation's blind.
     To explain this spectacular growth, three questions must be
asked and answered: (1) What are the conditions in the general
environment of the blind which have impelled them to organize? (2)
What are the purpose, the belief, and the philosophy of the
National Federation of the Blind? (3) Who are its leaders, and what
are their qualifications to understand and solve the problems of
blindness? Even a brief answer to these questions is instructive.
     When the Federation came into being in 1940, the outlook for
the blind was certainly not bright. The nation's welfare system was
so discouraging to individual initiative that those who were forced
to accept public assistance had little hope of ever achieving
self-support again, and those who sought competitive employment in
regular industry or the professions found most of the doors barred
against them. The universal good will expressed toward the blind
was not the wholesome good will of respect felt toward equals; it
was the misguided goodwill of pity felt toward inferiors. In effect
the system said to the blind, "Sit on the sidelines of life. This
game is not for you. If you have creative talents, we are sorry,
but we cannot use them." The Federation came into being to combat
these expressions of discrimination and to promote new ways of
thought concerning blindness. Although great progress has been made
toward the achievement of these goals, much still remains to be
done.
     The Federation believes that blind people are essentially
normal and that blindness in itself is not a mental or
psychological handicap. It can be reduced to the level of a mere
physical nuisance. Legal, economic, and social discrimination based
upon the false assumption that the blind are somehow different from
the sighted must be abolished, and equality of opportunity must be
made available to blind people. Because of their personal
experience with blindness, the blind themselves are best qualified
to lead the way in solving their own problems, but the general
public should be asked to participate in finding solutions. Upon
these fundamentals the National Federation of the Blind predicates
its philosophy.
     As for the leadership of the organization, all of the officers
and members of the Board of Directors are blind, and all give
generously of their time and resources in promoting the work of the
Federation. The Board consists of seventeen elected members, five
of whom are the constitutional officers of the organization. These
members of the Board of Directors represent a wide cross section of
the blind population of the United States. Their backgrounds are
different, and their experiences vary widely; but they are drawn
together by the common bond of having met blindness individually
and successfully in their own lives and by their united desire to
see other blind people have the opportunity to do likewise. A
profile of the leadership of the organization shows why it is so
effective and demonstrates the progress made by blind people during
the past half century■for in the story of the lives of these
leaders can be found the greatest testimonial to the soundness of
the Federation's philosophy. The cumulative record of their
individual achievements is an overwhelming proof, leading to an
inescapable conclusion.

DR. JACOBUS tenBROEK - Author, Jurist, Professor, Founder of the
National Federation of the Blind

     The moving force in the founding of the National Federation of
the Blind (and its spiritual and intellectual father) was Jacobus
tenBroek. Born in 1911, young tenBroek (the son of a prairie
homesteader in Canada) lost the sight of one eye as the result of
a bow-and-arrow accident at the age of seven. His remaining
eyesight deteriorated until at the age of fourteen he was totally
blind. Shortly afterward he and his family traveled to Berkeley so
that he could attend the California School for the Blind. Within
three years he was an active part of the local organization of the
blind.
     By 1934 he had joined with Dr. Newel Perry and others to form
the California Council of the Blind, which later became the
National Federation of the Blind of California. This organization
was a prototype for the nationwide federation that tenBroek would
form six years later.
     Even a cursory glance at his professional career shows the
absurdity of the idea that blindness means incapacity. The same
year the Federation was founded (1940) Jacobus tenBroek received
his doctorate in jurisprudence from the University of California,
completed a year as Brandeis Research Fellow at Harvard Law School,
and was appointed to the faculty of the University of Chicago Law
School.
     Two years later he began his teaching career at the University
of California at Berkeley, moving steadily up through the ranks to
become full professor in 1953 and chairman of the department of
speech in 1955. In 1963 he accepted an appointment as professor of
political science.
     During this period Professor tenBroek published several books
and more than fifty articles and monographs in the fields of
welfare, government, and law■establishing a reputation as one of
the nation's foremost scholars on matters of constitutional law.
One of his books, Prejudice, War, and the Constitution, won the
Woodrow Wilson Award of the American Political Science Association
in 1955 as the best book of the year on government and democracy.
Other books are California's Dual System of Family Law (1964), Hope
Deferred: Public Welfare and the Blind (1959), The Antislavery
Origins of the Fourteenth Amendment (1951)■revised and republished
in 1965 as Equal Under Law, and The Law of the Poor (edited in
1966).
     In the course of his academic career Professor tenBroek was a
fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences
at Palo Alto and was twice the recipient of fellowships from the
Guggenheim Foundation. In 1947 he earned the degree of S.J.D. from
Harvard Law School. In addition, he was awarded honorary degrees by
two institutions of higher learning.
     Dr. tenBroek's lifelong companion was his devoted wife Hazel.
Together they raised three children and worked inseparably on
research, writing, and academic and Federation concerns. Mrs.
tenBroek still continues as an active member of the organized blind
movement.
     In 1950 Dr. tenBroek was made a member of the California State
Board of Social Welfare by Governor Earl Warren. Later reappointed
to the board three times, he was elected its chairman in 1960 and
served in that capacity until 1963.
     The brilliance of Jacobus tenBroek's career led some skeptics
to suggest that his achievements were beyond the reach of what they
called the "ordinary blind person." What tenBroek recognized in
himself was not that he was exceptional, but that he was
normal■that his blindness had nothing to do with whether he could
be a successful husband and father, do scholarly research, write a
book, make a speech, guide students engaged in social action
movements and causes, or otherwise lead a productive life.
     In any case, the skeptics' theory has been refuted by the
success of the thousands of blind men and women who have put this
philosophy of normality to work in their own lives during the past
fifty years.
     Jacobus tenBroek died of cancer at the age of fifty-six in
1968. His successor, Kenneth Jernigan, in a memorial address, said
truly of him: "The relationship of this man to the organized blind
movement, which he brought into being in the United States and
around the world, was such that it would be equally accurate to say
that the man was the embodiment of the movement or that the
movement was the expression of the man.
     "For tens of thousands of blind Americans over more than a
quarter of a century, he was leader, mentor, spokesman, and
philosopher. He gave to the organized blind movement the force of
his intellect and the shape of his dreams. He made it the symbol of
a cause barely imagined before his coming: the cause of
self-expression, self-direction, and self-sufficiency on the part
of blind people. Step by step, year by year, action by action, he
made that cause succeed."

        KENNETH JERNIGAN - Teacher, Writer, Administrator

     Kenneth Jernigan has been a leader in the National Federation
of the Blind for more than thirty-five years. He was President
(with one brief interruption) from 1968 until July of 1986.
Although Jernigan is no longer President of the Federation, he
continues to be one of its principal leaders. He works closely with
the President, and he continues to be loved and respected by tens
of thousands■members and non-members of the Federation, both blind
and sighted.
     Born in 1926, Kenneth Jernigan grew up on a farm in central
Tennessee. He received his elementary and secondary education at
the school for the blind in Nashville. After high school Jernigan
managed a furniture shop in Beech Grove, Tennessee, making all
furniture and operating the business.
     In the fall of 1945 Jernigan matriculated at Tennessee
Technological University in Cookeville. Active in campus affairs
from the outset, he was soon elected to office in his class and to
important positions in other student organizations. Jernigan
graduated with honors in 1948 with a B.S. degree in social science.
In 1949 he received a master's degree in English from Peabody
College in Nashville, where he subsequently completed additional
graduate study. While at Peabody he was a staff writer for the
school newspaper, co-founder of an independent literary magazine,
and a member of the Writers Club. In 1949 he received the Captain
Charles W. Browne Award, at that time presented annually by the
American Foundation for the Blind to the nation's outstanding blind
student.
     Jernigan then spent four years as a teacher of English at the
Tennessee School for the Blind. During this period he became active
in the Tennessee Association of the Blind (now the National
Federation of the Blind of Tennessee). He was elected to the vice
presidency of the organization in 1950 and to the presidency in
1951. In that position he planned the 1952 annual convention of the
National Federation of the Blind, which was held in Nashville, and
he has been planning National Conventions for the Federation ever
since. It was in 1952 that Jernigan was first elected to the NFB
Board of Directors.
     In 1953 he was appointed to the faculty of the California
Orientation Center for the Blind in Oakland, where he played a
major role in developing the best program of its kind then in
existence.
     From 1958 until 1978, he served as Director of the Iowa State
Commission for the Blind. In this capacity he was responsible for
administering state programs of rehabilitation, home teaching, home
industries, an orientation and adjustment center, and library
services for the blind and physically handicapped. The improvements
made in services to the blind of Iowa under the Jernigan
administration have never before or since been equaled anywhere in
the country.
     In 1960 the Federation presented Jernigan with its Newel Perry
Award for outstanding accomplishment in services for the blind. In
1968 Jernigan was given a Special Citation by the President of the
United States. Harold Russell, the chairman of the President's
Committee on Employment of the Handicapped, came to Des Moines to
present the award. He said: "If a person must be blind, it is
better to be blind in Iowa than anywhere else in the nation or in
the world. This statement," the citation went on to say, "sums up
the story of the Iowa Commission for the Blind during the Jernigan
years and more pertinently of its Director, Kenneth Jernigan. That
narrative is much more than a success story. It is the story of
high aspiration magnificently accomplished■of an impossible dream
become reality."
     Jernigan has received too many honors and awards to enumerate
individually, including honorary doctorates from three institutions
of higher education. He has also been asked to serve as a special
consultant to or member of numerous boards and advisory bodies. The
most notable among these are: member of the National Advisory
Committee on Services for the Blind and Physically Handicapped
(appointed by the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare),
special consultant on Services for the Blind (appointed by the
Federal Commissioner of Rehabilitation), advisor on museum programs
for blind visitors to the Smithsonian Institution, and special
advisor to the White House Conference on Library and Information
Services (appointed by President Gerald Ford). In July of 1990
Jernigan received an award for distinguished service from the
President of the United States.
     Kenneth Jernigan's writings and speeches on blindness are
better known and have touched more lives than those of any other
individual writing today. On July 23, 1975, he spoke before the
National Press Club in Washington, D.C., and his address was
broadcast live throughout the nation on National Public Radio.
Through the years he has appeared repeatedly on network radio and
television interview programs■including the "Today Show," the
"Tomorrow Show," and the "Larry King Show."
     In 1978 Jernigan moved to Baltimore to become Director of the
National Center for the Blind. As President of the National
Federation of the Blind at that time, he led the organization
through the most impressive period of growth in its history. The
creation and development of the National Center for the Blind and
the expansion of the NFB into the position of being the most
influential voice and force in the affairs of the blind stand as
the culmination of Kenneth Jernigan's lifework and a tribute to his
brilliance and commitment to the blind of this nation.
     Jernigan's dynamic wife Mary Ellen is an active member of the
Federation. Although sighted, she works with dedication in the
movement and is known and loved by thousands of Federationists
throughout the country.
     Speaking at a convention of the National Federation of the
Blind, Jernigan said of the organization and its philosophy (and
also of his own philosophy):
     As we look ahead, the world holds more hope than gloom for
us■and, best of all, the future is in our own hands. For the first
time in history we can be our own masters and do with our lives
what we will; and the sighted (as they learn who we are and what we
are) can and will work with us as equals and partners. In other
words we are capable of full membership in society, and the sighted
are capable of accepting us as such■and, for the most part, they
want to..
     We want no Uncle Toms■no sellouts, no apologists, no
rationalizers; but we also want no militant hell-raisers or
unbudging radicals. One will hurt our cause as much as the other.
We must win true equality in society, but we must not dehumanize
ourselves in the process; and we must not forget the graces and
amenities, the compassions and courtesies which comprise
civilization itself and distinguish people from animals and life
from existence.
     Let people call us what they will and say what they please
about our motives and our movement. There is only one way for the
blind to achieve first-class citizenship and true equality. It must
be done through collective action and concerted effort; and that
means the National Federation of the Blind. There is no other way,
and those who say otherwise are either uninformed or unwilling to
face the facts. We are the strongest force in the affairs of the
blind today, and we must also recognize the responsibilities of
power and the fact that we must build a world that is worth living
in when the war is over■and, for that matter, while we are fighting
it. In short, we must use both love and a club, and we must have
sense enough to know when to do which■long on compassion, short on
hatred; and, above all, not using our philosophy as a cop-out for
cowardice or inaction or rationalization. We know who we are and
what we must do■and we will never go back. The public is not
against us. Our determination proclaims it; our gains confirm it;
our humanity demands it.

              MARC MAURER - Attorney and Executive

     Born in 1951, Marc Maurer was the second in a family of six
children. His blindness was caused by overexposure to oxygen after
his premature birth, but he and his parents were determined that
this should not prevent him from living a full and normal life.
     He began his education at the Iowa Braille and Sight Saving
School, where he became an avid Braille reader. In the fifth grade
he returned home to Boone, Iowa, where he attended parochial
schools. During high school (having taken all the courses in the
curriculum) he simultaneously took classes at the junior college.
     Maurer ran three different businesses before finishing high
school: a paper route, a lawn care business, and an enterprise
producing and marketing maternity garter belts designed by his
mother. This last venture was so successful that his younger
brother took over the business when Maurer left home.
     In the summer of 1969, after graduating from high school,
Maurer enrolled as a student at the Orientation and Adjustment
Center of the Iowa Commission for the Blind and attended his first
convention of the NFB. He was delighted to discover in both places
that blind people and what they thought mattered. This was a new
phenomenon in his experience, and it changed his life. Kenneth
Jernigan was Director of the Iowa Commission for the Blind at the
time, and Maurer soon grew to admire and respect him. When Maurer
expressed an interest in overhauling a car engine, the Commission
for the Blind purchased the necessary equipment. Maurer completed
that project and actually worked for a time as an automobile
mechanic. He believes today that mastering engine repair played an
important part in changing his attitudes about blindness.
     Maurer graduated cum laude from the University of Notre Dame
in 1974. As an undergraduate he took an active part in campus life,
including election to the Honor Society. Then he enrolled at the
University of Indiana School of Law, where he received his Doctor
of Jurisprudence in 1977.
     Marc Maurer was elected President of the Student Division of
the National Federation of the Blind in 1971 and re-elected in 1973
and 1975. Also in 1971 (at the age of twenty) he was elected Vice
President of the National Federation of the Blind of Indiana. He
was elected President in 1973 and re-elected in 1975.
     During law school Maurer worked summers for the office of the
Secretary of State of Indiana. After graduation he moved to Toledo,
Ohio, to accept a position as the Director of the Senior Legal
Assistance Project operated by ABLE (Advocates for Basic Legal
Equality).
     In 1978 Maurer moved to Washington, D.C., to become an
attorney with the Rates and Routes Division in the office of the
General Counsel of the Civil Aeronautics Board. Initially he worked
on rates cases but soon advanced to dealing with international
matters and then to doing research and writing opinions on
constitutional issues and Board action. He wrote opinions for the
Chairman and made appearances before the full Board to discuss
those opinions.
     In 1981 he went into private practice in Baltimore, Maryland,
where he specialized in civil litigation and property matters. But
increasingly he concentrated on representing blind individuals and
groups in the courts. He has now become one of the most experienced
and knowledgeable attorneys in the country regarding the laws,
precedents, and administrative rulings concerning civil rights and
discrimination against the blind. He is a member of the Bar in
Indiana, Ohio, Iowa, and Maryland; and he is a member of the Bar of
the Supreme Court of the United States.
     Maurer has always been active in civic and political affairs,
having run for public office in Baltimore and having been elected
to the board of directors of the Tenants Association in his
apartment complex shortly after his arrival. Later he was elected
to the board of his community association when he became a home
owner. From 1984 until 1986 he served with distinction as President
of the National Federation of the Blind of Maryland.
     An important companion in Maurer's activities (and a leader in
her own right) is his wife Patricia. The Maurers were married in
1973, and they have two children■David Patrick, born March 10,
1984, and Dianna Marie, born July 12, 1987.
     At the 1985 convention in Louisville, Kentucky, Dr. Kenneth
Jernigan announced that he would not stand for re-election as
President of the National Federation of the Blind the following
year, and he recommended Marc Maurer as his successor. In Kansas
City in 1986, the convention elected Maurer by resounding
acclamation, and he has capably served as President ever since.National Federation of the Blind

You can help us spread the word...
     ...about our Braille Readers Are Leaders contest for blind
school children, a project which encourages blind children to
achieve literacy through Braille.
     ...about our scholarships for deserving blind college
students.
     ...about Job Opportunities for the Blind, a program that
matches capable blind people with employers who need their skills.
     ...about where to turn for accurate information about
blindness and the abilities of the blind.
     Most importantly, you can help us by sharing what you've
learned about blindness in these pages with your family and
friends. If you know anyone who needs our assistance please contact
us.Other Ways You Can Help...

Donations in Memory■When a loved one dies, many persons like to
make contributions to a nonprofit organization such as the National
Federation of the Blind as a living memorial to the deceased. In
this case, you may wish to print the name and address of the NFB in
the obituary and have it announced at the funeral services.

Matching Gifts■Some employers will match all or a percentage of an
employee's donation to a charitable organization. We participate in
such programs and can comply with any paperwork and guidelines
requested by your employer.

Bequests in a Will■You can remember the National Federation of the
Blind in your will by employing the following language:
"I give, devise, and bequeath unto National Federation of the
Blind, 1800 Johnson Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21230, a District
of Columbia nonprofit corporation, the sum of $__________ (or
"_______ percent of my net estate" or "The following stocks and
bonds: _______") to be used for its worthy purposes on behalf of
blind persons."

Combined Federal Campaign■If you are a federal employee you may
designate the National Federation of the Blind to receive your CFC
contribution. You will find us listed in the Independent Charities
of America Section. Our CFC designation number is 1205.Helpful Products

     Here are a few of our most frequently requested items. If you
wish any of these products, please send payment with your order.
For a complete listing of everything we carry ask for our "Aids and
Appliances Order Form."
     Cane (White wooden support - 39 inches)   $9.00
     Cane (White, Lightweight Fiberglass, Non-Support,  53 inches.
Specify rigid or telescoping)   $25.00
     Kitchen Timer with Tactile Markings   $8.75
     LetterWritingGuide   $1.00
     Magnifier (3 lens, folding, pocket-size)   $6.50
     Needle Threader   $1.25
     Playing Cards
          Brailled, regular deck   $6.00
          Brailled, Pinochle   $4.00
          Large Print, single deck   $3.50
          Large Print, double deck   $5.00
          Large Print, Pinochle   $2.00
     Signature Guide   $4.00
     Talking Alarm Clock   $20.00Additional Resources Available from the National Federation of the
Blind

Catalogs
     Literature & Materials Order Form
          A listing of articles and speeches about blindness
          ranging from current legal issues to tips on daily living
          to information on Social Security.

     Aids & Appliances Order Form
          Descriptive listing of various aids and appliances.
          Contains a multitude of items, including canes, slates
          and styluses, Braille paper, 4-track cassette recorders,
          Braille watches, talking clocks and calculators, kitchen
          items, and games.

     Selected Literature for Blind Youth Order Form

Brochures
     Blindness and Disorders of the Eye
     The Blind Child in the Regular Preschool
     Comments on Clothing
     Diabetes, Complications, Options
     Parents of Blind Children
     So You Don't Know Anything About Computers and You Might Like
     to Nibble
     Who are the Blind Who Lead the Blind
* All of the above are available FREE from the National Federation
of the Blind.